Machine Learning Design Patterns

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• Preface
  • Who Is This Book For?
  • Whats Not in the Book
  • Code Samples
  • Conventions Used in This Book
  • OReilly Online Learning
  • How to Contact Us
  • Acknowledgments
• 1. The Need for Machine Learning Design Patterns
  • What Are Design Patterns?
  • How to Use This Book
  • Machine Learning Terminology
    • Models and Frameworks
    • Data and Feature Engineering
    • The Machine Learning Process
    • Data and Model Tooling
    • Roles
  • Common Challenges in Machine Learning
    • Data Quality
    • Reproducibility
    • Data Drift
    • Scale
    • Multiple Objectives
  • Summary
• 2. Data Representation Design Patterns
  • Simple Data Representations
    • Numerical Inputs
      • Why scaling is desirable
      • Linear scaling
      • Nonlinear transformations
      • Array of numbers
    • Categorical Inputs
      • One-hot encoding
      • Array of categorical variables
  • Design Pattern 1: Hashed Feature
    • Problem
    • Solution
    • Why It Works
      • Out-of-vocabulary input
      • High cardinality
      • Cold start
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Bucket collision
      • Skew
      • Aggregate feature
      • Hyperparameter tuning
      • Cryptographic hash
      • Order of operations
      • Empty hash buckets
  • Design Pattern 2: Embeddings
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • Text embeddings
      • Image embeddings
    • Why It Works
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Choosing the embedding dimension
      • Autoencoders
      • Context language models
      • Embeddings in a data warehouse
  • Design Pattern 3: Feature Cross
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • Feature cross in BigQuery ML
      • Feature crosses in TensorFlow
    • Why It Works
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Handling numerical features
      • Handling high cardinality
      • Need for regularization
  • Design Pattern 4: Multimodal Input
    • Problem
    • Solution
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Tabular data multiple ways
      • Multimodal representation of text
        • Text data multiple ways
        • Extracting tabular features from text
      • Multimodal representation of images
        • Images as pixel values
        • Images as tiled structures
        • Combining different image representations
        • Using images with metadata
      • Multimodal feature representations and model interpretability
  • Summary
• 3. Problem Representation Design Patterns
  • Design Pattern 5: Reframing
    • Problem
    • Solution
    • Why It Works
      • Capturing uncertainty
      • Changing the objective
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Bucketized outputs
      • Other ways of capturing uncertainty
      • Precision of predictions
      • Restricting the prediction range
      • Label bias
      • Multitask learning
  • Design Pattern 6: Multilabel
    • Problem
    • Solution
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Sigmoid output for models with two classes
      • Which loss function should we use?
      • Parsing sigmoid results
      • Dataset considerations
      • Inputs with overlapping labels
      • One versus rest
  • Design Pattern 7: Ensembles
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • Bagging
      • Boosting
      • Stacking
    • Why It Works
      • Bagging
      • Boosting
      • Stacking
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Increased training and design time
      • Dropout as bagging
      • Decreased model interpretability
      • Choosing the right tool for the problem
      • Other ensemble methods
  • Design Pattern 8: Cascade
    • Problem
    • Solution
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Deterministic inputs
      • Single model
      • Internal consistency
      • Pre-trained models
      • Reframing instead of Cascade
      • Regression in rare situations
  • Design Pattern 9: Neutral Class
    • Problem
    • Solution
    • Why It Works
      • Synthetic data
      • In the real world
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • When human experts disagree
      • Customer satisfaction
      • As a way to improve embeddings
      • Reframing with neutral class
  • Design Pattern 10: Rebalancing
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • Choosing an evaluation metric
      • Downsampling
      • Weighted classes
      • Upsampling
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Reframing and Cascade
      • Anomaly detection
      • Number of minority class examples available
      • Combining different techniques
      • Choosing a model architecture
      • Importance of explainability
  • Summary
• 4. Model Training Patterns
  • Typical Training Loop
    • Stochastic Gradient Descent
    • Keras Training Loop
    • Training Design Patterns
  • Design Pattern 11: Useful Overfitting
    • Problem
    • Solution
    • Why It Works
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Interpolation and chaos theory
      • Monte Carlo methods
      • Data-driven discretizations
      • Unbounded domains
      • Distilling knowledge of neural network
      • Overfitting a batch
  • Design Pattern 12: Checkpoints
    • Problem
    • Solution
    • Why It Works
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Early stopping
        • Checkpoint selection
        • Regularization
        • Two splits
      • Fine-tuning
      • Redefining an epoch
        • Steps per epoch
        • Retraining with more data
        • Virtual epochs
  • Design Pattern 13: Transfer Learning
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • Bottleneck layer
      • Implementing transfer learning
      • Pre-trained embeddings
    • Why It Works
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Fine-tuning versus feature extraction
      • Focus on image and text models
      • Embeddings of words versus sentences
  • Design Pattern 14: Distribution Strategy
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • Synchronous training
      • Asynchronous training
    • Why It Works
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Model parallelism
      • ASICs for better performance at lower cost
      • Choosing a batch size
      • Minimizing I/O waits
  • Design Pattern 15: Hyperparameter Tuning
    • Problem
      • Manual tuning
      • Grid search and combinatorial explosion
    • Solution
    • Why It Works
      • Nonlinear optimization
      • Bayesian optimization
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Fully managed hyperparameter tuning
      • Genetic algorithms
  • Summary
• 5. Design Patterns for Resilient Serving
  • Design Pattern 16: Stateless Serving Function
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • Model export
      • Inference in Python
      • Create web endpoint
    • Why It Works
      • Autoscaling
      • Fully managed
      • Language-neutral
      • Powerful ecosystem
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Custom serving function
      • Multiple signatures
      • Online prediction
      • Prediction library
  • Design Pattern 17: Batch Serving
    • Problem
    • Solution
    • Why It Works
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Batch and stream pipelines
      • Cached results of batch serving
      • Lambda architecture
  • Design Pattern 18: Continued Model Evaluation
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • Concept
      • Deploying the model
      • Saving predictions
      • Capturing ground truth
      • Evaluating model performance
      • Continuous evaluation
    • Why It Works
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Triggers for retraining
      • Scheduled retraining
      • Data validation with TFX
      • Estimating retraining interval
  • Design Pattern 19: Two-Phase Predictions
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • Phase 1: Building the offline model
      • Phase 2: Building the cloud model
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Standalone single-phase model
      • Offline support for specific use cases
      • Handling many predictions in near real time
      • Continuous evaluation for offline models
  • Design Pattern 20: Keyed Predictions
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • How to pass through keys in Keras
      • Adding keyed prediction capability to an existing model
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Asynchronous serving
      • Continuous evaluation
  • Summary
• 6. Reproducibility Design Patterns
  • Design Pattern 21: Transform
    • Problem
    • Solution
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Transformations in TensorFlow and Keras
      • Efficient transformations with tf.transform
      • Text and image transformations
      • Alternate pattern approaches
  • Design Pattern 22: Repeatable Splitting
    • Problem
    • Solution
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Single query
      • Random split
      • Split on multiple columns
      • Repeatable sampling
      • Sequential split
      • Stratified split
      • Unstructured data
  • Design Pattern 23: Bridged Schema
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • Bridged schema
        • Probabilistic method
        • Static method
      • Augmented data
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Union schema
      • Cascade method
      • Handling new features
      • Handling precision increases
  • Design Pattern 24: Windowed Inference
    • Problem
    • Solution
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Reduce computational overhead
        • Per element versus over a time interval
        • High-throughput data streams
      • Streaming SQL
      • Sequence models
      • Stateful features
      • Batching prediction requests
  • Design Pattern 25: Workflow Pipeline
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • Building the TFX pipeline
      • Running the pipeline on Cloud AI Platform
    • Why It Works
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Creating custom components
      • Integrating CI/CD with pipelines
      • Apache Airflow and Kubeflow Pipelines
      • Development versus production pipelines
      • Lineage tracking in ML pipelines
  • Design Pattern 26: Feature Store
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • Feast
        • Adding feature data to Feast
        • Creating a FeatureSet
        • Adding entities and features to the FeatureSet
        • Registering the FeatureSet
        • Ingesting feature data into the FeatureSet
      • Retrieving data from Feast
        • Batch serving
        • Online serving
    • Why It Works
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Alternative implementations
      • Transform design pattern
  • Design Pattern 27: Model Versioning
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • Types of model users
      • Model versioning with a managed service
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Other serverless versioning tools
      • TensorFlow Serving
      • Multiple serving functions
      • New models versus new model versions
  • Summary
• 7. Responsible AI
  • Design Pattern 28: Heuristic Benchmark
    • Problem
    • Solution
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Development check
      • Human experts
      • Utility value
  • Design Pattern 29: Explainable Predictions
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • Model baseline
      • SHAP
      • Explanations from deployed models
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Data selection bias
      • Counterfactual analysis and example-based explanations
      • Limitations of explanations
  • Design Pattern 30: Fairness Lens
    • Problem
    • Solution
      • Before training
      • After training
    • Trade-Offs and Alternatives
      • Fairness Indicators
      • Automating data evaluation
      • Allow and disallow lists
      • Data augmentation
      • Model Cards
      • Fairness versus explainability
  • Summary
• 8. Connected Patterns
  • Patterns Reference
  • Pattern Interactions
  • Patterns Within ML Projects
    • ML Life Cycle
      • Discovery
      • Development
      • Deployment
    • AI Readiness
      • Tactical phase: Manual development
      • Strategic phase: Utilizing pipelines
      • Transformational phase: Fully automated processes
  • Common Patterns by Use Case and Data Type
    • Natural Language Understanding
    • Computer Vision
    • Predictive Analytics
    • Recommendation Systems
    • Fraud and Anomaly Detection
• Index

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