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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Science</h1>
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									<div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
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				<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div class="hatnote">This article is about the general term.  For other uses, see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(disambiguation)" title="Science (disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig">Science (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Scientific_Universe.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/The_Scientific_Universe.png/220px-The_Scientific_Universe.png" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/The_Scientific_Universe.png/330px-The_Scientific_Universe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/The_Scientific_Universe.png/440px-The_Scientific_Universe.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a>
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The scale of the universe mapped to the branches of science and the hierarchy of science.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup></div>
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<td class="navbox-title" style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em;padding-bottom:0.1em;"><b>Part of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">a series</a> on</b></td>
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<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;">
<div class="navbox-abovebelow"><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal</a></span></div>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical logic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_statistics" title="Mathematical statistics">Mathematical statistics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">Theoretical computer science</a></li>
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<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;">
<div class="navbox-abovebelow"><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physical_science" title="Outline of physical science">Physical</a></span></div>
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<th style="padding:0.1em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_reaction" title="Acid–base reaction">Acid-base</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">Analytical</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">Supramolecular</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Sustainable ("green")</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li>
</ul>
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<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></th>
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<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">Experimental</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical</a></i></li>
</ul>
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<ul>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational</a></i></li>
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<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">Atomic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter</a></li>
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<li>
<div style="padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">Mechanics</a>
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<li>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">continuum</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_mechanics" title="Fluid mechanics">fluid</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_mechanics" title="Solid mechanics">solid</a>)</li>
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</li>
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<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a>&#160;(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_quantum_mechanics" title="Introduction to quantum mechanics">introduction</a>)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special relativity</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General relativity</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheology" title="Rheology">Rheology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">String theory</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></li>
</ul>
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<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth sciences</a></th>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a>&#160;(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a>)</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">Paleoecology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">Palynology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedology_(soil_study)" title="Pedology (soil study)">Pedology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanology" title="Volcanology">Volcanology</a></li>
</ul>
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<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_space_science" title="Outline of space science">Space science</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_astronomy" title="Galactic astronomy">Galactic astronomy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star" title="Star">Stellar astronomy</a></li>
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<div class="navbox-abovebelow"><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_sciences" title="Life sciences" class="mw-redirect">Life</a></span></div>
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<th style="padding:0.1em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnobiology" title="Ethnobiology">Ethnobiology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a>&#160;(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">introduction</a>)</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a>&#160;(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">introduction</a>)</span></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_biology" title="Soil biology">Soil biology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;">
<div class="navbox-abovebelow"><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social</a></span></div>
</div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-top:0.6em;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a>&#160;(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a>)</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International relations</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Science education</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
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<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;">
<div class="navbox-abovebelow"><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied</a></span></div>
</div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-top:0.6em;">
<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none">
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a></th>
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<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil</a></li>
<li><a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a>&#160;/ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">engineering</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_protection_engineering" title="Fire protection engineering">Fire protection</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">Robotics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_engineering" title="Web engineering">Web</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_science" title="Healthcare science" class="mw-redirect">Healthcare</a></th>
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<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentistry" title="Dentistry">Dentistry</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwifery" title="Midwifery">Midwifery</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursing" title="Nursing">Nursing</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
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<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;">
<div class="navbox-abovebelow"><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinary</a></span></div>
</div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-top:0.6em;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied physics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_systems" title="Complex systems">Complex systems</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_studies" title="Ethnic studies">Ethnic studies</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_science" title="Library science">Library science</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<ul>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical&#160;/ theoretical biology</a></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">Mathematical physics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">Military science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_science" title="Network science">Network science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">Scientific modelling</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_science" title="Systems science">Systems science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">Urban planning</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_science" title="Web science">Web science</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
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<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
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<div class="navbox-abovebelow">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History</a></span></li>
</ul>
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<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-top:0.6em;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Basic research</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">Citizen science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">Fringe science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_freedom" title="Scientific freedom">Freedom</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Policy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Method</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a></li>
</ul>
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<td class="hlist" style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;display:block;margin-top:0.7em; border-top:1px solid #bbf;padding-top:0.15em;border-bottom:1px solid #bbf;">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science" title="Outline of science">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">Category</a></li>
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<p><b>Science</b><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>nb 1<span>]</span></a></sup> is a systematic enterprise that creates, builds and organizes <a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> in the form of testable <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">explanations</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictions" title="Predictions" class="mw-redirect">predictions</a> about the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>nb 2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EOWilson_4-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-EOWilson-4"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:58</sup></p>
<p>Contemporary science is typically subdivided into the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a> which study the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_world" title="Physical world" class="mw-redirect">material world</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_sciences" title="Social sciences" class="mw-redirect">social sciences</a> which study people and societies, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_sciences" title="Formal sciences" class="mw-redirect">formal sciences</a> like mathematics. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical" title="Empirical" class="mw-redirect">empirical</a> observations.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> Disciplines which use science like engineering and medicine may also be considered to be <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_sciences" title="Applied sciences" class="mw-redirect">applied sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>During the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_ages" title="Middle ages" class="mw-redirect">middle ages</a> in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, foundations for the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> were laid by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhazen" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Haq_7-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Haq-7"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sabra_8-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Sabra-8"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> From <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> through the 19th century, science as a type of knowledge was more closely linked to <a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> than it is now and, in fact, in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_World" title="Western World" class="mw-redirect">West</a> the term "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>" encompassed fields of study that are today associated with science, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:3</sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>nb 3<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>In the 17th and 18th centuries scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_laws" title="Physical laws" class="mw-redirect">laws of nature</a></i>. Over the course of the 19th century, the word "science" became increasingly associated with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> itself, as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was in the 19th century that scientific disciplines such as physics, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> reached their modern shapes. The same time period also included the origin of the terms "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a>" and "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">scientific community</a>," the founding of scientific institutions, and increasing significance of the interactions with society and other aspects of culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_12-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-12"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="Science#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="Science#Antiquity"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Antiquity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="Science#Medieval_science"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Medieval science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="Science#Renaissance.2C_and_early_modern_science"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Renaissance, and early modern science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="Science#Age_of_Enlightenment"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Age of Enlightenment</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="Science#19th_century"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">19th century</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="Science#20th_century_and_beyond"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">20th century and beyond</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="Science#The_scientific_method"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">The scientific method</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="Science#Mathematics_and_formal_sciences"><span class="tocnumber">1.8</span> <span class="toctext">Mathematics and formal sciences</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="Science#Scientific_community"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Scientific community</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="Science#Branches_and_fields"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Branches and fields</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="Science#Institutions"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Institutions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="Science#Literature"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Literature</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="Science#Science_and_society"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Science and society</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="Science#Women_in_science"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Women in science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="Science#Science_policy"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Science policy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="Science#Media_perspectives"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Media perspectives</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="Science#Political_usage"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Political usage</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="Science#Science_and_the_public"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Science and the public</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="Science#Philosophy_of_science"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy of science</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="Science#Certainty_and_science"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Certainty and science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="Science#Fringe_science.2C_pseudoscience_and_junk_science"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Fringe science, pseudoscience and junk science</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="Science#Scientific_practice"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Scientific practice</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="Science#Basic_and_applied_research"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Basic and applied research</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="Science#Research_in_practice"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Research in practice</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="Science#Practical_impacts_of_scientific_research"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Practical impacts of scientific research</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="Science#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="Science#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="Science#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="Science#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="Science#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="Science#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></div>
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An animation showing the movement of the continents from the separation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a> until the present day</div>
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<p>Science in a broad sense existed before the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era" class="mw-redirect">modern era</a>, and in many historical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilizations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>nb 4<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_science" title="Modern science" class="mw-redirect">Modern science</a> is distinct in its <a href="Science#Scientific_practice" title="Science">approach</a> and successful in its <a href="Science#Literature" title="Science">results</a>: 'modern science' now defines what science is in the strictest sense of the term.<sup id="cite_ref-Heilbron_2003_p.vii_15-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Heilbron_2003_p.vii-15"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Science in its original sense is a word for a type of knowledge, rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular it is one of the types of knowledge which people can communicate to each other and share. For example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thinking. This is shown by the construction of complex calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible, and buildings such as the pyramids. However no consistent conscientious distinction was made between knowledge of such things which are true in every community and other types of communal knowledge, such as mythologies and legal systems.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Antiquity">Antiquity</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature (philosophy)</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:242px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Corncobs.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Corncobs.jpg/240px-Corncobs.jpg" width="240" height="160" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Corncobs.jpg/360px-Corncobs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Corncobs.jpg/480px-Corncobs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="667" /></a>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">Maize</a>, known in some English-speaking countries as corn, is a large <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain" title="Grain">grain</a> plant domesticated by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous peoples</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric times</a></div>
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<p>Before the invention or discovery of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concept</a> of "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>" (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phusis" title="Phusis" class="mw-redirect">phusis</a></i>), by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosopher" title="Pre-Socratic philosopher" class="mw-redirect">Pre-Socratic philosophers</a>, the same words tend to be used to describe the <i>natural</i> "way" in which a plant grows,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup> and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup> Science was therefore distinguished as the knowledge of nature, and the things which are true for every community, and the name of the specialized pursuit of such knowledge was philosophy&#160;— the realm of the first philosopher-physicists. They were mainly speculators or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theorists</a>, particularly interested in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature (artifice or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>, Greek <i>technē</i>) was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-18"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> A clear-cut distinction between formal (<i>eon</i>) and empirical science (<i>doxa</i>) was made by pre-Socratic philosopher <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> (fl. late sixth or early fifth century BCE). Although his work <i>peri physeos</i> is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay, an essay on method in natural science. Parmenides' ἐὸν may refer to a formal system, a calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. 'Physis' may be identical to ἐὸν.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-19"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, 384 BC – 322 BC - one of the early figures in the development of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-20"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup></div>
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<p>A major turning point in the history of early philosophical science was the controversial but successful attempt by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> to apply philosophy to the study of human things, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself. He criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative, and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of human things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, and Socrates was executed.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-21"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy, which was <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleological" title="Teleological" class="mw-redirect">teleological</a>, and human-centred. He rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics the sun goes around the earth, and many things have it as part of their nature that they are for humans. Each thing has a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_cause" title="Formal cause" class="mw-redirect">formal cause</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_cause" title="Final cause" class="mw-redirect">final cause</a> and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actualization" title="Actualization" class="mw-redirect">actualization</a> of potentials already in things, according to what types of things they are. While the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being (a study Aristotle divided into <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>), they did not argue for any other types of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied science</a>.</p>
<p>Aristotle maintained the sharp distinction between science and the practical knowledge of artisans, treating theoretical speculation as the highest type of human activity, practical thinking about good living as something less lofty, and the knowledge of artisans as something only suitable for the lower classes. In contrast to modern science, Aristotle's influential emphasis was upon the "theoretical" steps of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deducing</a> universal rules from raw data, and did not treat the gathering of experience and raw data as part of science itself.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-22"><span>[</span>nb 5<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Medieval_science">Medieval science</span></h3>
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De potentiis anime sensitive, Gregor Reisch (1504) <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margarita_philosophica" title="Margarita philosophica" class="mw-redirect">Margarita philosophica</a></i>. Medieval science mooted a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">ventricle</a> of the brain as the location for our <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">common sense</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-23"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup> where the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" title="Theory of Forms">forms</a> from our <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_system" title="Sensory system">sensory systems</a> commingled.</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alhazen,_the_Persian.gif" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Alhazen%2C_the_Persian.gif/170px-Alhazen%2C_the_Persian.gif" width="170" height="203" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Alhazen%2C_the_Persian.gif/255px-Alhazen%2C_the_Persian.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Alhazen%2C_the_Persian.gif 2x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="360" /></a>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham" class="mw-redirect">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhazen), 965–1039 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. The Muslim scholar who is considered by some to be the father of modern scientific methodology due to his emphasis on experimental data and reproducibility of its results.<sup id="cite_ref-news.bbc.co.uk_24-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-news.bbc.co.uk-24"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-25"><span>[</span>nb 6<span>]</span></a></sup></div>
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<p>During <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity" class="mw-redirect">late antiquity</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early Middle Ages</a>, the Aristotelian approach to inquiries on natural phenomena was used. Some ancient knowledge was lost, or in some cases kept in obscurity, during the fall of the Roman Empire and periodic political struggles. However, the general fields of science, or "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>" as it was called, and much of the general knowledge from the ancient world remained preserved though the works of the early Latin encyclopedists like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a>. Also, in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_empire" title="Byzantine empire" class="mw-redirect">Byzantine empire</a>, many Greek science texts were preserved in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> translations done by groups such as Nestorians and Monophysites.<sup id="cite_ref-history_natural_philosophy_26-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-history_natural_philosophy-26"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup> Many of these were translated later on into Arabic under the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a>, during which many types of classical learning were preserved and in some cases improved upon.<sup id="cite_ref-history_natural_philosophy_26-1" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-history_natural_philosophy-26"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-27"><span>[</span>nb 7<span>]</span></a></sup> The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a> was established in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid" title="Abbasid" class="mw-redirect">Abbasid</a>-era <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-28"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup> It is considered to have been a major intellectual center, during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, where Muslim scholars such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">al-Kindi</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Sahl" title="Ibn Sahl">Ibn Sahl</a> in Baghdad, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham" class="mw-redirect">Ibn al-Haytham</a> in Cairo, flourished from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries, until the Mongol sack of Baghdad. Ibn al-Haytham, known later to the West as Alhazen, furthered the Aristotelian viewpoint,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-29"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup> by emphasizing experimental data.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-30"><span>[</span>nb 8<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-31"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup> In the later medieval period, as demand for translations grew, for example from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo_School_of_Translators" title="Toledo School of Translators">Toledo School of Translators</a>, Western Europeans began collecting texts written not only in Latin, but also Latin translations from Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew. The texts of Aristotle, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-GerardOfCremona_32-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-GerardOfCremona-32"><span>[</span>nb 9<span>]</span></a></sup> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>, preserved in the Houses of Wisdom, were sought amongst Catholic scholars. In Europe, Alhazen's <i>De Aspectibus</i> directly influenced <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a> (13th century) in England, who argued for more experimental science, as demonstrated by Alhazen. By the late Middle Ages, a synthesis of Catholicism and Aristotelianism known as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> was flourishing in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, which had become a new geographic center of science, but all aspects of scholasticism were criticized in the 15th and 16th centuries.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Renaissance.2C_and_early_modern_science">Renaissance, and early modern science</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_revolution" title="Scientific revolution">Scientific revolution</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1543,Visalius%27OpticChiasma.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/1543%2CVisalius%27OpticChiasma.jpg/220px-1543%2CVisalius%27OpticChiasma.jpg" width="220" height="236" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/1543%2CVisalius%27OpticChiasma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/1543%2CVisalius%27OpticChiasma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="287" data-file-height="308" /></a>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> (129—c. 216) noted the optic chiasm is X-shaped. (Engraving from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesalius" title="Vesalius" class="mw-redirect">Vesalius</a>, 1543)</div>
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Front page of the 1572 Latin Opticae Thesaurus (optics treasury), which included Alhazen's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a>, showing propagation of light, rainbows, parabolic mirrors, distorted images caused by refraction in water, and perspective.</div>
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<p>Medieval science carried on the views of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" title="Hellenistic civilization" class="mw-redirect">Hellenist civilization</a> of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, as shown by Alhazen's lost work <i>A Book in which I have Summarized the Science of Optics from the Two Books of Euclid and Ptolemy, to which I have added the Notions of the First Discourse which is Missing from Ptolemy's Book</i> from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Usaibia" title="Ibn Abi Usaibia">Ibn Abi Usaibia</a>'s catalog, as cited in (<a href="Science#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith 2001</a>).<sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<b>91</b>(vol.1),p.xv</sup> Alhazen conclusively disproved Ptolemy's theory of vision.</p>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:D%C3%BCrer_-_Man_Drawing_a_Lute.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/D%C3%BCrer_-_Man_Drawing_a_Lute.jpg/220px-D%C3%BCrer_-_Man_Drawing_a_Lute.jpg" width="220" height="157" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/D%C3%BCrer_-_Man_Drawing_a_Lute.jpg/330px-D%C3%BCrer_-_Man_Drawing_a_Lute.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/D%C3%BCrer_-_Man_Drawing_a_Lute.jpg/440px-D%C3%BCrer_-_Man_Drawing_a_Lute.jpg 2x" data-file-width="998" data-file-height="710" /></a>
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Dürer's use of optics (1525)</div>
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<p>But Alhacen retained Aristotle's ontology; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witelo" title="Witelo">Witelo</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Peckham" title="John Peckham">John Peckham</a> each built-up a scholastic ontology upon Alhazen's <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a></i>, a causal chain beginning with sensation, perception, and finally apperception of the individual and universal forms of Aristotle.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-33"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> This model of vision became known as Perspectivism, which was exploited and studied by the artists of the Renaissance.</p>
<p>A. Mark Smith points out the perspectivist theory of vision "is remarkably economical, reasonable, and coherent", which pivots on three of Aristotle's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">four causes</a>, formal, material, and final.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-34"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> Although Alhacen knew that a scene imaged through an aperture is inverted, he argued that vision is about perception. This was overturned by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_35-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Cohen-35"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:p.102</sup> who modelled the eye with a water-filled glass sphere, with an aperture in front of it to model the entrance pupil. He found that all the light from a single point of the scene was imaged at a single point at the back of the glass sphere. The optical chain ends on the retina at the back of the eye and the image is inverted.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-36"><span>[</span>nb 10<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernicus" title="Copernicus" class="mw-redirect">Copernicus</a> formulated a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> model of the solar system unlike the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a></i>.</p>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, father of modern science.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-37"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup></div>
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<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo" title="Galileo" class="mw-redirect">Galileo</a> made innovative use of experiment and mathematics. However his persecution began after Pope Urban VIII blessed Galileo to write about the Copernican system. Galileo had used arguments from the Pope and put them in the voice of the simpleton in the work "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems" which caused great offense to him.<sup id="cite_ref-Pope_Urban_VIII_38-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Pope_Urban_VIII-38"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>In Northern Europe, the new technology of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> was widely used to publish many arguments including some that disagreed with church <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogma</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> published philosophical arguments in favor of a new type of non-Aristotelian science. Descartes argued that mathematics could be used in order to study nature, as Galileo had done, and Bacon emphasized the importance of experiment over contemplation. Bacon questioned the Aristotelian concepts of formal cause and final cause, and promoted the idea that science should study the laws of "simple" natures, such as heat, rather than assuming that there is any specific nature, or "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_cause" title="Formal cause" class="mw-redirect">formal cause</a>", of each complex type of thing. This new modern science began to see itself as describing "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_law" title="Physical law">laws of nature</a>". This updated approach to studies in nature was seen as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanistic" title="Mechanistic" class="mw-redirect">mechanistic</a>. Bacon also argued that science should aim for the first time at practical inventions for the improvement of all human life.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Age_of_Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</span></h3>
<p>In the 17th and 18th centuries, the project of modernity, as had been promoted by Bacon and Descartes, led to rapid scientific advance and the successful development of a new type of natural science, mathematical, methodically experimental, and deliberately innovative. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz" class="mw-redirect">Leibniz</a> succeeded in developing a new physics, now referred to as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtonian_physics" title="Newtonian physics" class="mw-redirect">Newtonian physics</a>, which could be confirmed by experiment and explained using mathematics. Leibniz also incorporated terms from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian physics</a>, but now being used in a new non-teleological way, for example "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>" and "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential" title="Potential">potential</a>" (modern versions of Aristotelian "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuality_and_potentiality" title="Actuality and potentiality" class="mw-redirect"><i>energeia</i> and <i>potentia</i></a>"). In the style of Bacon, he assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes for each type of thing. It is during this period that the word "science" gradually became more commonly used to refer to a <i>type of pursuit</i> of a type of knowledge, especially knowledge of nature&#160;— coming close in meaning to the old term "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>".</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="19th_century">19th century</span></h3>
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Charles Darwin in 1854, by then working towards publication of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i></div>
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<p>Both <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Herschel" title="John Herschel">John Herschel</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> systematized methodology: the latter coined the term <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a>. When <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> published <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> he established <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descent_with_modification" title="Descent with modification" class="mw-redirect">descent with modification</a> as the prevailing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> explanation of biological complexity. His theory of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> provided a natural explanation of how <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> originated, but this only gained wide acceptance a century later. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> developed the idea of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoms" title="Atoms" class="mw-redirect">atoms</a>. The laws of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_theory" title="Electromagnetic theory" class="mw-redirect">electromagnetic theory</a> were also established in the 19th century, which raised new questions which could not easily be answered using Newton's framework. The phenomena that would allow the deconstruction of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> were discovered in the last decade of the 19th century: the discovery of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> inspired the discovery of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactivity" title="Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect">radioactivity</a>. In the next year came the discovery of the first subatomic particle, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>.</p>
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Combustion and chemical reactions were studied by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> and reported in his lectures before the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institution" title="Royal Institution">Royal Institution</a>: <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chemical_History_of_a_Candle" title="The Chemical History of a Candle">The Chemical History of a Candle</a></i>, 1861</div>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="20th_century_and_beyond">20th century and beyond</span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMS_Higgs-event.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/180px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg" width="180" height="166" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/270px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/360px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="1018" /></a>
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A simulated event in the CMS detector of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a>, featuring a possible appearance of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a></div>
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<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein" title="Einstein" class="mw-redirect">Einstein</a>'s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Relativity" title="Theory of Relativity" class="mw-redirect">Theory of Relativity</a> and the development of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> led to the replacement of Newtonian physics with a new physics which contains two parts, that describe different types of events in nature.</p>
<p>In the first half of the century the development of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_fertilizer" title="Artificial fertilizer" class="mw-redirect">artificial fertilizer</a> made possible global human <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a>. At the same time, the structure of the atom and its nucleus was elucidated, leading to the release of "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_energy" title="Atomic energy">atomic energy</a>" (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a>). In addition, the extensive use of scientific innovation, stimulated by the wars of this century, led to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic" class="mw-redirect">antibiotics</a> and increased life expectancy, revolutions in transportation (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobiles" title="Automobiles" class="mw-redirect">automobiles</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>), and the development of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICBM" title="ICBM" class="mw-redirect">ICBMs</a>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_race" title="Space race" class="mw-redirect">space race</a>, and a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">nuclear arms race</a>— all giving a widespread public appreciation of the importance of modern science.</p>
<p>Widespread use of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuits" title="Integrated circuits" class="mw-redirect">integrated circuits</a> in the last quarter of the 20th century, combined with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">communications satellites</a>, led to a revolution in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>, and the rise of the global <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_computing" title="Mobile computing">mobile computing</a>, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a>.</p>
<p>More recently, it has been argued that the ultimate purpose of science is to make sense of human beings and our nature&#160;– for example in his book <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></i>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EO_Wilson" title="EO Wilson" class="mw-redirect">EO Wilson</a> said "The human condition is the most important frontier of the natural sciences." <sup id="cite_ref-EOWilson_4-1" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-EOWilson-4"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:334</sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="The_scientific_method">The scientific method</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></div>
<p>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> seeks to explain the events of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a> in a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproducible" title="Reproducible" class="mw-redirect">reproducible</a> way.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-39"><span>[</span>nb 11<span>]</span></a></sup> An explanatory <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> is put forward, as explanation, using principles such as parsimony (also known as "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam%27s_Razor" title="Occam's Razor" class="mw-redirect">Occam's Razor</a>") and are generally expected to seek <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">consilience</a>—fitting well with other accepted facts related to the phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-EOWilson_4-2" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-EOWilson-4"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Disputed statement" class="mw-redirect"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (October 2015)">dubious</span></a> <span class="metadata">– <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Science#Meaning_of_consilience" title="Talk:Science">discuss</a></span></i>]</sup> This new explanation is used to make <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsifiable" title="Falsifiable" class="mw-redirect">falsifiable</a> predictions that are testable by experiment or observation. The predictions are to be posted before a confirming experiment or observation is sought, as proof that no tampering has occurred. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-40"><span>[</span>nb 12<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-41"><span>[</span>nb 13<span>]</span></a></sup> This is done partly through observation of natural phenomena, but also through experimentation, that tries to simulate natural events under controlled conditions, as appropriate to the discipline (in the observational sciences, such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might take the place of a controlled experiment). Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal relationships</a> (to avoid the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">correlation fallacy</a>).</p>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, shown here in a 1689 portrait, made seminal contributions to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>. Newton shares credit with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz" class="mw-redirect">Gottfried Leibniz</a> for the development of calculus.</div>
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<p>When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it is either modified or discarded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENolaIrzik2005208_42-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-FOOTNOTENolaIrzik2005208-42"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup> If the hypothesis survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_(science)" title="Theory (science)" class="mw-redirect">scientific theory</a>. This is a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena. A theory typically describes the behavior of much broader sets of phenomena than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus a theory is a hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses. In addition to testing hypotheses, scientists may also generate a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_modeling" title="Scientific modeling" class="mw-redirect">model</a> based on observed phenomena. This is an attempt to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENolaIrzik2005199.E2.80.93201_43-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-FOOTNOTENolaIrzik2005199.E2.80.93201-43"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over another, and so it is important to ensure that science as a whole can eliminate this bias.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-44"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-45"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup> This can be achieved by careful <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">experimental design</a>, transparency, and a thorough <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> process of the experimental results as well as any conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-46"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-47"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup> After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the results might be.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-48"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup> Taken in its entirety, the scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving while minimizing any effects of subjective bias on the part of its users (namely the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-backer_49-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-backer-49"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mathematics_and_formal_sciences">Mathematics and formal sciences</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a></div>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a> is essential to the sciences. One important function of mathematics in science is the role it plays in the expression of scientific models. Observing and collecting <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurements" title="Measurements" class="mw-redirect">measurements</a>, as well as hypothesizing and predicting, often require extensive use of mathematics. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">Arithmetic</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometry</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>, for example, are all essential to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>. Virtually every branch of mathematics has applications in science, including "pure" areas such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory" title="Number theory">number theory</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topology" title="Topology">topology</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistical methods</a>, which are mathematical techniques for summarizing and analyzing data, allow scientists to assess the level of reliability and the range of variation in experimental results. Statistical analysis plays a fundamental role in many areas of both the natural sciences and social sciences.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_science" title="Computational science">Computational science</a> applies computing power to simulate real-world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. According to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Industrial_and_Applied_Mathematics" title="Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics">Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics</a>, computation is now as important as theory and experiment in advancing scientific knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-50"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Whether mathematics itself is properly classified as science has been a matter of some debate. Some thinkers see mathematicians as scientists, regarding physical experiments as inessential or mathematical proofs as equivalent to experiments. Others do not see mathematics as a science, since it does not require an experimental test of its theories and hypotheses. Mathematical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem" title="Theorem">theorems</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula" title="Formula">formulas</a> are obtained by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">logical</a> derivations which presume <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axiomatic</a> systems, rather than the combination of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical" title="Empirical" class="mw-redirect">empirical</a> observation and logical reasoning that has come to be known as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>. In general, mathematics is classified as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">formal science</a>, while natural and social sciences are classified as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical" title="Empirical" class="mw-redirect">empirical</a> sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-51"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Scientific_community">Scientific community</span></h2>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">Scientific community</a></div>
<p>The scientific community is the group of all interacting scientists. It includes many sub-communities working on particular scientific fields, and within particular institutions; interdisciplinary and cross-institutional activities are also significant.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Branches_and_fields">Branches and fields</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">Branches of science</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cerebrum_lobes.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Cerebrum_lobes.svg/220px-Cerebrum_lobes.svg.png" width="220" height="142" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Cerebrum_lobes.svg/330px-Cerebrum_lobes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Cerebrum_lobes.svg/440px-Cerebrum_lobes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1092" data-file-height="707" /></a>
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The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">somatosensory system</a> is located throughout our bodies but is integrated in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>.</div>
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<p>Scientific fields are commonly divided into two major groups: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>, which study natural phenomena (including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biological life</a>), and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>, which study <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">human behavior</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society" title="Society">societies</a>. These groupings are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical" title="Empirical" class="mw-redirect">empirical</a> sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on observable <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomena</a> and capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopper200220_52-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopper200220-52"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></a></sup> There are also related disciplines that are grouped into interdisciplinary <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_sciences" title="Applied sciences" class="mw-redirect">applied sciences</a>, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>. Within these categories are specialized scientific fields that can include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature" title="Nomenclature">nomenclature</a> and expertise.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-53"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a>, which is classified as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">formal science</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-54"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-55"><span>[</span>42<span>]</span></a></sup> has both similarities and differences with the empirical sciences (the natural and social sciences). It is similar to empirical sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>a priori</i></a> rather than empirical methods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopper200210.E2.80.9311_56-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopper200210.E2.80.9311-56"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup> The formal sciences, which also include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, are vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in formal science have often led to major advances in the empirical sciences. The formal sciences are essential in the formation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theories</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_law" title="Physical law">laws</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopper200279.E2.80.9382_57-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopper200279.E2.80.9382-57"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></a></sup> both in discovering and describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people think and act (social sciences).</p>
<p>Apart from its broad meaning, the word "Science" sometimes may specifically refer to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_science" title="Fundamental science" class="mw-redirect">fundamental sciences</a> (maths and natural sciences) alone. Science schools or faculties within many institutions are separate from those for medicine or engineering, which is an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied science</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Institutions">Institutions</span></h3>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_society" title="Learned society">Learned societies</a> for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-58"><span>[</span>45<span>]</span></a></sup> The oldest surviving institution is the Italian <span lang="it" xml:lang="it"><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accademia_dei_Lincei" title="Accademia dei Lincei">Accademia dei Lincei</a></i></span> which was established in 1603.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-59"><span>[</span>46<span>]</span></a></sup> The respective National <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences" title="Academy of Sciences" class="mw-redirect">Academies of Science</a> are distinguished institutions that exist in a number of countries, beginning with the British <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> in 1660<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-60"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup> and the French <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences" title="Académie des Sciences" class="mw-redirect">Académie des Sciences</a></i></span> in 1666.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-61"><span>[</span>48<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>International scientific organizations, such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Council_for_Science" title="International Council for Science">International Council for Science</a>, have since been formed to promote cooperation between the scientific communities of different nations. Many governments have dedicated agencies to support scientific research. Prominent scientific organizations include, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CONICET" title="CONICET" class="mw-redirect">National Scientific and Technical Research Council</a> in Argentina, the academies of science of many nations, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSIRO" title="CSIRO" class="mw-redirect">CSIRO</a> in Australia, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_national_de_la_recherche_scientifique" title="Centre national de la recherche scientifique">Centre national de la recherche scientifique</a></span> in France, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck_Society" title="Max Planck Society">Max Planck Society</a> and <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Forschungsgemeinschaft" title="Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft" class="mw-redirect">Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft</a></span> in Germany, and in Spain, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSIC" title="CSIC" class="mw-redirect">CSIC</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Literature">Literature</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">Scientific literature</a></div>
<p>An enormous range of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">scientific literature</a> is published.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-62"><span>[</span>49<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_journal" title="Scientific journal">Scientific journals</a> communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions, serving as an archival record of science. The first scientific journals, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_des_S%C3%A7avans" title="Journal des Sçavans" class="mw-redirect">Journal des Sçavans</a></i> followed by the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions</a></i>, began publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased. In 1981, one estimate for the number of scientific and technical journals in publication was 11,500.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-63"><span>[</span>50<span>]</span></a></sup> The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Library_of_Medicine" title="United States National Library of Medicine">United States National Library of Medicine</a> currently indexes 5,516 journals that contain articles on topics related to the life sciences. Although the journals are in 39 languages, 91 percent of the indexed articles are published in English.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-64"><span>[</span>51<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_paper" title="Scientific paper" class="mw-redirect">scientific paper</a>. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is generally considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider populace.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_magazine" title="Science magazine" class="mw-redirect">Science magazines</a> such as <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NewScientist" title="NewScientist" class="mw-redirect">New Scientist</a></i>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_%26_Vie" title="Science &amp; Vie">Science &amp; Vie</a></i>, and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i> cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_book" title="Science book">Science books</a> engage the interest of many more people. Tangentially, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> genre, primarily fantastic in nature, engages the public imagination and transmits the ideas, if not the methods, of science.</p>
<p>Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific disciplines such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a> or, more specifically, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a>, include the <i>Creative Writing Science</i> resource developed through the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Literary_Fund" title="Royal Literary Fund">Royal Literary Fund</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-65"><span>[</span>52<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Science_and_society">Science and society</span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Women_in_science">Women in science</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a></div>
<p>Science has traditionally been a male-dominated field, with some notable exceptions.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-66"><span>[</span>nb 14<span>]</span></a></sup> Women historically faced considerable discrimination in science, much as they did in other areas of male-dominated societies, such as frequently being passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-67"><span>[</span>nb 15<span>]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Ladd-Franklin" title="Christine Ladd-Franklin">Christine Ladd</a> (1847–1930) was able to enter a Ph.D. program as 'C. Ladd'; Christine "Kitty" Ladd completed the requirements in 1882, but was awarded her degree only in 1926, after a career which spanned the algebra of logic (see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_table#Truth_table_for_all_binary_logical_operators" title="Truth table">truth table</a>), color vision, and psychology. Her work preceded notable researchers like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>. The achievements of women in science have been attributed to their defiance of their traditional role as laborers within the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separate_spheres" title="Separate spheres">domestic sphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-68"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and elimination of institutional discrimination on the basis of sex greatly increased the number of female scientists, but large gender disparities remain in some fields; over half of new biologists are female, while 80% of PhDs in physics are given to men. Feminists claim this is the result of culture rather than an innate difference between the sexes, and some experiments have shown that parents challenge and explain more to boys than girls, asking them to reflect more deeply and logically.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-69"><span>[</span>54<span>]</span></a></sup> In the early part of the 21st century, in America, women earned 50.3% bachelor's degrees, 45.6% master's degrees, and 40.7% of PhDs in science and engineering fields with women earning more than half of the degrees in three fields: Psychology (about 70%), Social Sciences (about 50%), and Biology (about 50-60%). However, when it comes to the Physical Sciences, Geosciences, Math, Engineering, and Computer Science; women earned less than half the degrees.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-70"><span>[</span>55<span>]</span></a></sup> However, lifestyle choice also plays a major role in female engagement in science; women with young children are 28% less likely to take tenure-track positions due to work-life balance issues,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-71"><span>[</span>56<span>]</span></a></sup> and female graduate students' interest in careers in research declines dramatically over the course of graduate school, whereas that of their male colleagues remains unchanged.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-72"><span>[</span>57<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Science_policy">Science policy</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_policy" title="History of science policy">History of science policy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding of science</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_science" title="Economics of science">Economics of science</a></div>
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President Clinton meets the 1998 U.S. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> winners in the White House</div>
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<p>Science policy is an area of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a> concerned with the policies that affect the conduct of the scientific enterprise, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_funding" title="Research funding" class="mw-redirect">research funding</a>, often in pursuance of other national policy goals such as technological innovation to promote commercial product development, weapons development, health care and environmental monitoring. Science policy also refers to the act of applying scientific knowledge and consensus to the development of public policies. Science policy thus deals with the entire domain of issues that involve the natural sciences. In accordance with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a> being concerned about the well-being of its citizens, science policy's goal is to consider how science and technology can best serve the public.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">policy</a> has influenced the funding of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a> and science for thousands of years, dating at least from the time of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohists" title="Mohists" class="mw-redirect">Mohists</a>, who inspired the study of logic during the period of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a>, and the study of defensive fortifications during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> in China. In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, governmental approval of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Royal_Society" title="The Royal Society" class="mw-redirect">the Royal Society</a> in the 17th century recognized a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">scientific community</a> which exists to this day. The professionalization of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly enabled by the creation of scientific organizations such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="United States National Academy of Sciences" class="mw-redirect">National Academy of Sciences</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Institute" title="Kaiser Wilhelm Institute" class="mw-redirect">Kaiser Wilhelm Institute</a>, and State funding of universities of their respective nations. Public policy can directly affect the funding of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_equipment" title="Capital equipment" class="mw-redirect">capital equipment</a>, intellectual infrastructure for industrial research, by providing tax incentives to those organizations that fund research. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a>, director of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Scientific_Research_and_Development" title="Office of Scientific Research and Development">Office of Scientific Research and Development</a> for the United States government, the forerunner of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>, wrote in July 1945 that "Science is a proper concern of government".<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-73"><span>[</span>58<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology_and_society" title="Science, technology and society">Science and technology</a> research is often funded through a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a> is between 1.5% and 3% of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OECD2008_74-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-OECD2008-74"><span>[</span>59<span>]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OECD" title="OECD" class="mw-redirect">OECD</a>, around two-thirds of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universities" title="Universities" class="mw-redirect">universities</a> and government. The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>. Similarly, with some exceptions (e.g. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>) government provides the bulk of the funds for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_science" title="Basic science" class="mw-redirect">basic scientific research</a>. In commercial research and development, all but the most research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialisation possibilities rather than "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_skies_research" title="Blue skies research">blue-sky</a>" ideas or technologies (such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a>).</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Media_perspectives">Media perspectives</span></h3>
<p>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass media</a> face a number of pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_debate" title="Scientific debate" class="mw-redirect">scientific debate</a> may require considerable expertise regarding the matter.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-75"><span>[</span>60<span>]</span></a></sup> Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_reporter" title="Beat reporter" class="mw-redirect">beat reporters</a> who know a great deal about certain scientific issues may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to cover.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-76"><span>[</span>61<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-77"><span>[</span>62<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Political_usage">Political usage</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a></div>
<p>Many issues damage the relationship of science to the media and the use of science and scientific arguments by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politician" title="Politician">politicians</a>. As a very broad generalisation, many politicians seek certainties and <i>facts</i> whilst scientists typically offer probabilities and caveats. However, politicians' ability to be heard in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass media</a> frequently distorts the scientific understanding by the public. Examples in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a> include the controversy over the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMR_vaccine" title="MMR vaccine">MMR</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inoculation" title="Inoculation">inoculation</a>, and the 1988 forced resignation of a Government Minister, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwina_Currie" title="Edwina Currie">Edwina Currie</a> for revealing the high probability that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_cage" title="Battery cage">battery</a> farmed eggs were contaminated with <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-78"><span>[</span>63<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Horgan_(American_journalist)" title="John Horgan (American journalist)" class="mw-redirect">John Horgan</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Mooney_(journalist)" title="Chris Mooney (journalist)">Chris Mooney</a>, and researchers from the US and Canada have described Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs), where an organization or think tank makes it their only goal to cast doubt on supported science because it conflicts with political agendas.<sup id="cite_ref-DoubtIs_79-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-DoubtIs-79"><span>[</span>64<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HorganReview_80-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-HorganReview-80"><span>[</span>65<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-81"><span>[</span>66<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SCAMs_82-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-SCAMs-82"><span>[</span>67<span>]</span></a></sup> Hank Campbell and microbiologist Alex Berezow have described "feel-good fallacies" used in politics, where politicians frame their positions in a way that makes people feel good about supporting certain policies even when scientific evidence shows there is no need to worry or there is no need for dramatic change on current programs.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-83"><span>[</span>68<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Science_and_the_public">Science and the public</span></h3>
<p>Various activities are developed to approximate the general public and science/scientists, such as in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_outreach" title="Science outreach">science outreach</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science" title="Public awareness of science">public awareness of science</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">science communication</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_festival" title="Science festival">science festivals</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen science</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism" title="Science journalism">science journalism</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_science" title="Public science">public science</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_science" title="Popular science">popular science</a>, etc.; see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Science_and_the_public" title="Template:Science and the public">Science and the public</a> for related concepts. Science is represented by the 'S' in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_fields" title="STEM fields" class="mw-redirect">STEM fields</a>.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy_of_science">Philosophy of science</span></h2>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div>
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<td class="mbox-text"><span class="mbox-text-span">The following text needs to be <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">harmonized</a> with text in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a>. <small><i>(February 2014)</i></small></span></td>
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<p>Working scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method: (1) that there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers; (2) that this objective reality is governed by natural laws; (3) that these laws can be discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Heilbron_2003_p.vii_15-1" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Heilbron_2003_p.vii-15"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> Philosophy of science seeks a deep understanding of what these underlying assumptions mean and whether they are valid.</p>
<p>The belief that scientific theories should and do represent <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> reality is known as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">realism</a>. It can be contrasted with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-realism#Anti-realism_in_science" title="Anti-realism">anti-realism</a>, the view that the success of science does not depend on it being accurate about unobservable entities such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrons" title="Electrons" class="mw-redirect">electrons</a>. One form of anti-realism is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a>, the belief that the mind or consciousness is the most basic essence, and that each mind generates its own reality.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-84"><span>[</span>nb 16<span>]</span></a></sup> In an idealistic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_view" title="World view">world view</a>, what is true for one mind need not be true for other minds.</p>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sand_Reckoner" title="The Sand Reckoner">The Sand Reckoner</a> is a work by Archimedes in which he sets out to determine an upper bound for the number of grains of sand that fit into the universe. In order to do this, he had to estimate the size of the universe according to the contemporary model, and invent a way to analyze extremely large numbers.</div>
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<p>There are different schools of thought in philosophy of science. The most popular position is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Galileo1638_85-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Galileo1638-85"><span>[</span>nb 17<span>]</span></a></sup> which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation and that scientific theories are the result of generalizations from such observations.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-86"><span>[</span>69<span>]</span></a></sup> Empiricism generally encompasses <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductivism" title="Inductivism">inductivism</a>, a position that tries to explain the way general theories can be justified by the finite number of observations humans can make and hence the finite amount of empirical evidence available to confirm scientific theories. This is necessary because the number of predictions those theories make is infinite, which means that they cannot be known from the finite amount of evidence using <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_logic" title="Deductive logic" class="mw-redirect">deductive logic</a> only. Many versions of empiricism exist, with the predominant ones being <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesianism" title="Bayesianism" class="mw-redirect">bayesianism</a><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-87"><span>[</span>70<span>]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_method" title="Hypothetico-deductive method" class="mw-redirect">hypothetico-deductive method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith.2C2003_88-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith.2C2003-88"><span>[</span>71<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:p236</sup></p>
<p>Empiricism has stood in contrast to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, the position originally associated with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes" title="Descartes" class="mw-redirect">Descartes</a>, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by observation.<sup id="cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith.2C2003_88-1" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith.2C2003-88"><span>[</span>71<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:p20</sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a> is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>. Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories and that the only way a theory can be affected by observation is when it comes in conflict with it.<sup id="cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith.2C2003_88-2" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith.2C2003-88"><span>[</span>71<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:pp63–7</sup> Popper proposed replacing verifiability with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiability</a> as the landmark of scientific theories, and replacing induction with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsificationism" title="Falsificationism" class="mw-redirect">falsification</a> as the empirical method.<sup id="cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith.2C2003_88-3" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith.2C2003-88"><span>[</span>71<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:p68</sup> Popper further claimed that there is actually only one universal method, not specific to science: the negative method of criticism, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_and_error" title="Trial and error">trial and error</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-89"><span>[</span>72<span>]</span></a></sup> It covers all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and art.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-90"><span>[</span>73<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Another approach, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalism</a>, colloquially termed "shut up and calculate", emphasizes the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-91"><span>[</span>74<span>]</span></a></sup> It views scientific theories as black boxes with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences, theoretical entities and logical structure are claimed to be something that should simply be ignored and that scientists shouldn't make a fuss about (see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">interpretations of quantum mechanics</a>). Close to instrumentalism is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">constructive empiricism</a>, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_K_Feyerabend" title="Paul K Feyerabend" class="mw-redirect">Paul K Feyerabend</a> advanced the idea of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" title="Epistemological anarchism">epistemological anarchism</a>, which holds that there are no useful and exception-free <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodological rules</a> governing the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_progress" title="Scientific progress">progress of science</a> or the growth of <a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, and that the idea that science can or should operate according to universal and fixed rules is unrealistic, pernicious and detrimental to science itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeyerabend1993_92-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeyerabend1993-92"><span>[</span>75<span>]</span></a></sup> Feyerabend advocates treating science as an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> alongside others such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_(paranormal)" title="Magic (paranormal)">magic</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythology" title="Mythology">mythology</a>, and considers the dominance of science in society <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarian" title="Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect">authoritarian</a> and unjustified. He also contended (along with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a>)<sup class="noprint selfreference">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Science" title="Talk:Science">discuss</a></i>]</sup> that the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">demarcation problem</a> of distinguishing science from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a> on objective grounds is not possible and thus fatal to the notion of science running according to fixed, universal rules.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeyerabend1993_92-1" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeyerabend1993-92"><span>[</span>75<span>]</span></a></sup> Feyerabend also stated that science does not have evidence for its philosophical precepts, particularly the notion of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformity of Law and the Uniformity of Process across time and space</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-93"><span>[</span>76<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Finally, another approach often cited in debates of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">scientific skepticism</a> against controversial movements like "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_creationism" title="Scientific creationism" class="mw-redirect">scientific creationism</a>", is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodological_naturalism" title="Methodological naturalism" class="mw-redirect">methodological naturalism</a>. Its main point is that a difference between natural and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> explanations should be made, and that science should be restricted methodologically to natural explanations.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-94"><span>[</span>nb 18<span>]</span></a></sup> That the restriction is merely methodological (rather than ontological) means that science should not consider supernatural explanations itself, but should not claim them to be wrong either. Instead, supernatural explanations should be left a matter of personal belief <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-overlapping_magisteria" title="Non-overlapping magisteria">outside the scope of science</a>. Methodological naturalism maintains that proper science requires strict adherence to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical" title="Empirical" class="mw-redirect">empirical</a> study and independent verification as a process for properly developing and evaluating explanations for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observable</a> phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-95"><span>[</span>77<span>]</span></a></sup> The absence of these standards, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal_to_authority" title="Appeal to authority" class="mw-redirect">arguments from authority</a>, biased <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_studies" title="Observational studies" class="mw-redirect">observational studies</a> and other common <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacies</a> are frequently cited by supporters of methodological naturalism as characteristic of the non-science they criticize.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Certainty_and_science">Certainty and science</span></h3>
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The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_helix" title="Double helix" class="mw-redirect">double helix</a> is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a> that encodes the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> and many <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>.</div>
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<p>A scientific theory is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical" title="Empirical" class="mw-redirect">empirical</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Galileo1638_85-1" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Galileo1638-85"><span>[</span>nb 17<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Structure_of_Scientific_Theories_in_.27.27The_Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy.27.27_96-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-The_Structure_of_Scientific_Theories_in_.27.27The_Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy.27.27-96"><span>[</span>78<span>]</span></a></sup> and is always open to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsification</a> if new evidence is presented. That is, no theory is ever considered strictly <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">certain</a> as science accepts the concept of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">fallibilism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-97"><span>[</span>nb 19<span>]</span></a></sup> The philosopher of science <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> sharply distinguishes truth from certainty. He writes that scientific knowledge "consists in the search for truth", but it "is not the search for certainty&#160;... All human knowledge is fallible and therefore uncertain."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopper1996_98-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopper1996-98"><span>[</span>79<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:p4</sup></p>
<p>New scientific knowledge rarely results in vast changes in our understanding. According to psychologist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_Stanovich" title="Keith Stanovich">Keith Stanovich</a>, it may be the media's overuse of words like "breakthrough" that leads the public to imagine that science is constantly proving everything it thought was true to be false.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanovich2007_99-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Stanovich2007-99"><span>[</span>80<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:119–138</sup> While there are such famous cases as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a> that required a complete reconceptualization, these are extreme exceptions. Knowledge in science is gained by a gradual synthesis of information from different experiments, by various <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research" title="Research">researchers</a>, across different branches of science; it is more like a climb than a leap.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanovich2007_99-1" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Stanovich2007-99"><span>[</span>80<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:123</sup> Theories vary in the extent to which they have been tested and verified, as well as their acceptance in the scientific community.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-100"><span>[</span>nb 20<span>]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric theory</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">the theory of evolution</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativity_theory" title="Relativity theory" class="mw-redirect">relativity theory</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory</a> still bear the name "theory" even though, in practice, they are considered <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">factual</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-101"><span>[</span>81<span>]</span></a></sup> Philosopher <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Stroud" title="Barry Stroud">Barry Stroud</a> adds that, although the best definition for "<a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>" is contested, being <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeptical" title="Skeptical" class="mw-redirect">skeptical</a> and entertaining the <i>possibility</i> that one is incorrect is compatible with being correct. Ironically then, the scientist adhering to proper scientific approaches will doubt themselves even once they possess the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-102"><span>[</span>82<span>]</span></a></sup> The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallibilist" title="Fallibilist" class="mw-redirect">fallibilist</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">C.&#160;S. Peirce</a> argued that inquiry is the struggle to resolve actual doubt and that merely quarrelsome, verbal, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_doubt" title="Hyperbolic doubt" class="mw-redirect">hyperbolic doubt</a> is fruitless<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-103"><span>[</span>83<span>]</span></a></sup>—but also that the inquirer should try to attain genuine doubt rather than resting uncritically on common sense.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-104"><span>[</span>84<span>]</span></a></sup> He held that the successful sciences trust, not to any single chain of inference (no stronger than its weakest link), but to the cable of multiple and various arguments intimately connected.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-105"><span>[</span>85<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Stanovich also asserts that science avoids searching for a "magic bullet"; it avoids the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_single_cause" title="Fallacy of the single cause">single-cause fallacy</a>. This means a scientist would not ask merely "What is <i>the</i> cause of&#160;...", but rather "What <i>are</i> the most significant <i>causes</i> of&#160;...". This is especially the case in the more macroscopic fields of science (e.g. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Stanovich2007_99-2" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Stanovich2007-99"><span>[</span>80<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:141–147</sup> Of course, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a> often analyzes few factors at once, but these are always added to the long list of factors that are most important to consider.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanovich2007_99-3" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Stanovich2007-99"><span>[</span>80<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:141–147</sup> For example: knowing the details of only a person's genetics, or their history and upbringing, or the current situation may not explain a behaviour, but a deep understanding of all these variables combined can be very predictive.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Fringe_science.2C_pseudoscience_and_junk_science">Fringe science, pseudoscience and junk science</span></h3>
<p>An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim a legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is sometimes referred to as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">fringe science</a>, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk_science" title="Junk science">junk science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-106"><span>[</span>nb 21<span>]</span></a></sup> Physicist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> coined the term "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_cult_science" title="Cargo cult science">cargo cult science</a>" for cases in which researchers believe they are doing science because their activities have the outward appearance of science but actually lack the "kind of utter honesty" that allows their results to be rigorously evaluated.<sup id="cite_ref-cargocultscience_107-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-cargocultscience-107"><span>[</span>86<span>]</span></a></sup> Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories.</p>
<p>There also can be<sup class="noprint selfreference">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Science" title="Talk:Science">discuss</a></i>]</sup> an element of political or ideological bias on all sides of scientific debates.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Sometimes, research may be characterized as "bad science", research that may be well-intentioned but is actually incorrect, obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas. The term "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">scientific misconduct</a>" refers to situations such as where researchers have intentionally misrepresented their published data or have purposely given credit for a discovery to the wrong person.<sup id="cite_ref-COPE1999PDF_108-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-COPE1999PDF-108"><span>[</span>87<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Scientific_practice">Scientific practice</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg/170px-Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg" width="170" height="256" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg/255px-Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg/340px-Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="595" /></a>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a> became much more <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accurate" title="Accurate" class="mw-redirect">accurate</a> after <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> devised his <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measuring_instrument" title="Measuring instrument">scientific instruments</a> for measuring angles between two <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_body" title="Celestial body" class="mw-redirect">celestial bodies</a>, before the invention of the telescope. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho%27s_observational_astronomy" title="Tycho's observational astronomy" class="mw-redirect">Brahe's observations</a> were the basis for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws" title="Kepler's laws" class="mw-redirect">Kepler's laws</a>.</div>
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<p>Although encyclopedias such as Pliny (fl. 77 AD) <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a></i> offered purported fact, they proved unreliable. A skeptical point of view, demanding a method of proof, was the practical position taken to deal with unreliable knowledge. As early as 1000 years ago, scholars such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhazen" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a> (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique_of_Ptolemy" title="Critique of Ptolemy" class="mw-redirect">Doubts Concerning Ptolemy</a></i>), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witelo" title="Witelo">Witelo</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Pecham" title="John Pecham" class="mw-redirect">John Pecham</a>, Francis Bacon (1605), and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._S._Peirce" title="C. S. Peirce" class="mw-redirect">C. S. Peirce</a> (1839–1914) provided the <a href="Science#Scientific_community">community</a> to address these points of uncertainty. In particular, fallacious reasoning can be exposed, such as '<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">affirming the consequent</a>'.</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>"If a man will begin with certainties, he shall end in doubts; but if he will be content to begin with doubts, he shall end in certainties."&#160;—<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> (1605) <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Advancement_of_Learning" title="The Advancement of Learning">The Advancement of Learning</a></i>, Book 1, v, 8</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The methods of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_Elenchus#Method" title="Method of Elenchus" class="mw-redirect">inquiry</a> into a problem have been known for thousands of years,<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-109"><span>[</span>88<span>]</span></a></sup> and extend beyond theory to practice. The use of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">measurements</a>, for example, is a practical approach to settle disputes in the community.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ziman" title="John Ziman">John Ziman</a> points out that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersubjective_verifiability" title="Intersubjective verifiability">intersubjective pattern recognition</a> is fundamental to the creation of all scientific knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-110"><span>[</span>89<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:p44</sup> Ziman shows how scientists can identify patterns to each other across centuries: Ziman refers to this ability as 'perceptual consensibility'.<sup id="cite_ref-Ziman1978_111-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Ziman1978-111"><span>[</span>90<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:p46</sup> Ziman then makes consensibility, leading to consensus, the touchstone of reliable knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Ziman1978_111-1" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Ziman1978-111"><span>[</span>90<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:p104</sup></p>
<p><br /></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Basic_and_applied_research">Basic and applied research</span></h3>
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Anthropogenic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">pollution</a> has an effect on the Earth's environment and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a></div>
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<p>Although some scientific research is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_research" title="Applied research">applied research</a> into specific problems, a great deal of our understanding comes from the curiosity-driven undertaking of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">basic research</a>. This leads to options for technological advance that were not planned or sometimes even imaginable. This point was made by Michael Faraday when, allegedly in response to the question "what is the <i>use</i> of basic research?" he responded "Sir, what is the use of a new-born child?".<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-112"><span>[</span>91<span>]</span></a></sup> For example, research into the effects of red light on the human eye's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_cells" title="Rod cells" class="mw-redirect">rod cells</a> did not seem to have any practical purpose; eventually, the discovery that our <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_vision" title="Night vision">night vision</a> is not troubled by red light would lead <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_and_rescue" title="Search and rescue">search and rescue</a> teams (among others) to adopt red light in the cockpits of jets and helicopters.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanovich2007_99-4" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-Stanovich2007-99"><span>[</span>80<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:106–110</sup> In a nutshell: Basic research is the search for knowledge. Applied research is the search for solutions to practical problems using this knowledge. Finally, even basic research can take unexpected turns, and there is some sense in which the scientific method is built to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method#Luck_and_science" title="Scientific method">harness luck</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Research_in_practice">Research in practice</span></h3>
<p>Due to the increasing complexity of information and specialization of scientists, most of the cutting-edge research today is done by well funded groups of scientists, rather than individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-simonton2013_113-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-simonton2013-113"><span>[</span>92<span>]</span></a></sup> D.K. Simonton notes that due to the breadth of very precise and far reaching tools already used by researchers today and the amount of research generated so far, creation of new disciplines or revolutions within a discipline may no longer be possible as it is unlikely that some phenomenon that merits its own discipline has been overlooked. Hybridizing of disciplines and finessing knowledge is, in his view, the future of science.<sup id="cite_ref-simonton2013_113-1" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-simonton2013-113"><span>[</span>92<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Practical_impacts_of_scientific_research">Practical impacts of scientific research</span></h3>
<p>Discoveries in fundamental science can be world-changing. For example:</p>
<dl>
<dd>
<table class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%">
<tr>
<th>Research</th>
<th>Impact</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">Static electricity</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> (1600)<br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">Electric current</a> (18th century)</td>
<td>All electric appliances, dynamo's, electric power stations, modern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_lighting" title="Electric lighting" class="mw-redirect">electric lighting</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_heating" title="Electric heating">electric heating</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">magnetic tape</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudspeaker" title="Loudspeaker">loudspeaker</a>, plus the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning_rod" title="Lightning rod">lightning rod</a>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">Diffraction</a> (1665)</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a>, hence <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber_optic" title="Fiber optic" class="mw-redirect">fiber optic</a> cable (1840s), modern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable" title="Submarine communications cable">intercontinental communications</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_TV" title="Cable TV" class="mw-redirect">cable TV</a> and internet</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory</a> (1700)</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a>, leading to decreased transmission of infectious diseases; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</a>, leading to techniques for disease diagnosis and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targeted_therapy" title="Targeted therapy">targeted</a> anticancer therapies.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a> (1798)</td>
<td>Leading to the elimination of most infectious diseases from developed countries and the worldwide eradication of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect" title="Photovoltaic effect">Photovoltaic effect</a> (1839)</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cells</a> (1883), hence <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar power</a>, solar powered <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watch" title="Watch">watches</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator">calculators</a> and other devices.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="nowrap">The strange orbit of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a> (1859) and other research</span><br />
leading to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special</a> (1905) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> (1916)</td>
<td>Satellite-based technology such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS" title="GPS" class="mw-redirect">GPS</a> (1973), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satnav" title="Satnav" class="mw-redirect">satnav</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_communications" title="Satellite communications" class="mw-redirect">satellite communications</a><sup id="cite_ref-nasa_2004_114-0" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-nasa_2004-114"><span>[</span>nb 22<span>]</span></a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a> (1887)</td>
<td>Radio had become used in innumerable ways beyond its better-known areas of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephony" title="Telephony">telephony</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcast</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> (1927) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_station" title="Radio station">radio</a> (1906) <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">entertainment</a>. Other uses included&#160;– <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_services" title="Emergency services" class="mw-redirect">emergency services</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_prediction" title="Weather prediction" class="mw-redirect">weather prediction</a>), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_communications" title="Wireless communications" class="mw-redirect">wireless communications</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_networking" title="Wireless networking" class="mw-redirect">networking</a>. Radio waves also led researchers to adjacent frequencies such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwaves</a>, used worldwide for heating and cooking food.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactivity" title="Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect">Radioactivity</a> (1896) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a> (1932)</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a> treatment (1896), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">Radiometric dating</a> (1905), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a> (1942) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">weapons</a> (1945), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PET_scans" title="PET scans" class="mw-redirect">PET scans</a> (1961), and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_research" title="Medical research">medical research</a> (via <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopic_labeling" title="Isotopic labeling">isotopic labeling</a>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-rays" title="X-rays" class="mw-redirect">X-rays</a> (1896)</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a>, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computed_tomography" title="Computed tomography" class="mw-redirect">computed tomography</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> (1900)</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductor devices</a> (1906), hence modern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications" class="mw-redirect">telecommunications</a> including the integration with wireless devices: the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phone</a><sup id="cite_ref-nasa_2004_114-1" class="reference"><a href="Science#cite_note-nasa_2004-114"><span>[</span>nb 22<span>]</span></a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastics" title="Plastics" class="mw-redirect">Plastics</a> (1907)</td>
<td>Starting with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakelite" title="Bakelite">bakelite</a>, many types of artificial polymers for numerous applications in industry and daily life</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotics" title="Antibiotics">Antibiotics</a> (1880's, 1928)</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvarsan" title="Salvarsan" class="mw-redirect">Salvarsan</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicilline" title="Penicilline" class="mw-redirect">Penicilline</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doxycycline" title="Doxycycline">doxycycline</a> etc.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">Nuclear magnetic resonance</a> (1930's)</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy</a> (1946), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a> (1971), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (1990's).</td>
</tr>
</table>
</dd>
</dl>
<p><br /></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<div class="noprint portal tright" style="border:solid #aaa 1px;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em">
<table style="background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;max-width:175px">
<tr style="vertical-align:middle">
<td style="text-align:center"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></td>
<td style="padding:0 0.2em;vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<div class="div-col columns column-count column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquarian_science_books" title="Antiquarian science books">Antiquarian science books</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science" title="Index of branches of science">Index of branches of science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science" title="Outline of science">Outline of science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathological_science" title="Pathological science">Pathological science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science wars</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language" title="Latin language" class="mw-redirect">Latin</a> <i>scientia</i>, meaning "knowledge". <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=science&amp;allowed_in_frame=0">"science"</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 20,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.btitle=science&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dscience%26allowed_in_frame%3D0&amp;rft.pub=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"...&#160;modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions."— <a href="Science#CITEREFHeilbron2003">Heilbron 2003</a>, p.&#160;vii</span>
<ul>
<li><span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science">"science"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a>, Inc<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 16,</span> 2011</span>. <q><b>3 a:</b> knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method <b>b:</b> such knowledge or such a system of knowledge concerned with the physical world and its phenomena.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.atitle=science&amp;rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster+Online+Dictionary&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fscience&amp;rft.pub=Merriam-Webster%2C+Inc&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isaac Newton's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiae_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" class="mw-redirect">Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a> (1687), for example, is translated "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", and reflects the then-current use of the words "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>", akin to "systematic study of nature"</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The historian&#160;... requires a very broad definition of "science"&#160;— one that&#160;... will help us to understand the modern scientific enterprise. We need to be broad and inclusive, rather than narrow and exclusive&#160;... and we should expect that the farther back we go [in time] the broader we will need to be."&#160;— <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Pingree" title="David Pingree">David Pingree</a> (1992), "Hellenophilia versus the History of Science" <i>Isis</i> <b>83</b> 554–63, as cited on p.3, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">David C. Lindberg</a> (2007), <i>The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context</i>, Second ed. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226482057" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7</a></span>
<ul>
<li><span class="reference-text">See <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Grant" title="Edward Grant">Edward Grant</a> (1997) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/41212592?Search=yes&amp;resultItemClick=true&amp;searchText=when&amp;searchText=did&amp;searchText=science&amp;searchText=begin&amp;searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dwhen%2Bdid%2Bscience%2Bbegin%26amp%3Bfilter%3D&amp;seq=2#page_scan_tab_contents">"When did modern science begin?"</a> <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Scholar" title="The American Scholar">The American Scholar</a></i> pp.105-113 in JSTOR:</span>
<ul>
<li><span class="reference-text"><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science#Early_cultures" title="History of science">History of science#Early cultures</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="reference-text"><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science#Ancient_Near_East" title="History of science">History of science#Ancient Near East</a></i>, Mesopotamia</span></li>
<li><span class="reference-text"><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science#Ancient_Near_East" title="History of science">History of science#Ancient Near East</a></i>, Egypt</span></li>
<li><span class="reference-text"><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science#China" title="History of science">History of Science in China</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="reference-text"><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science#India" title="History of science">History of science#India</a></i></span></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"...&#160;[A] man knows a thing scientifically when he possesses a conviction arrived at in a certain way, and when the first principles on which that conviction rests are known to him with certainty—for unless he is more certain of his first principles than of the conclusion drawn from them he will only possess the knowledge in question accidentally."&#160;— Aristotle, <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> <b>6</b> (H. Rackham, ed.) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1139b">Aristot. Nic. Eth. 1139b</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa (2010). <i>Mind, Brain, and Education Science: A Comprehensive Guide to the New Brain-Based Teaching</i>. W. W. Norton &amp; Company. p.&#160;39. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-70607-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-70607-9">978-0-393-70607-9</a>. <q>Alhazen (or Al-Haytham; 965–1039 C.E.) was perhaps one of the greatest physicists of all times and a product of the Islamic Golden Age or Islamic Renaissance (7th–13th centuries). He made significant contributions to anatomy, astronomy, engineering, mathematics, medicine, ophthalmology, philosophy, physics, psychology, and visual perception and is primarily attributed as the inventor of the scientific method, for which author Bradley Steffens (2006) describes him as the "first scientist".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.au=Tracey+Tokuhama-Espinosa&amp;rft.btitle=Mind%2C+Brain%2C+and+Education+Science%3A+A+Comprehensive+Guide+to+the+New+Brain-Based+Teaching&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-393-70607-9&amp;rft.pages=39&amp;rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alhacen had access to the optics books of Euclid and Ptolemy, as is shown by the title of his lost work <i>A Book in which I have Summarized the Science of Optics from the Two Books of Euclid and Ptolemy, to which I have added the Notions of the First Discourse which is Missing from Ptolemy's Book</i> From <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Usaibia" title="Ibn Abi Usaibia">Ibn Abi Usaibia</a>'s catalog, as cited in (<a href="Science#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith 2001</a>)<sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<b>91</b>(vol.1),p.xv</sup></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"[Ibn al-Haytham] followed Ptolemy's bridge building ... into a grand synthesis of light and vision. Part of his effort consisted in devising ranges of experiments, of a kind probed before but now undertaken on larger scale."— <a href="Science#CITEREFCohen2010">Cohen 2010</a>, p.&#160;59</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-GerardOfCremona-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-GerardOfCremona_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The translator, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona" title="Gerard of Cremona">Gerard of Cremona</a> (c. 1114–87), inspired by his love of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a>, came to Toledo, where he knew he could find the Almagest in Arabic. There he found Arabic books of every description, and learned Arabic in order to translate these books into Latin, being aware of 'the poverty of the Latins'.&#160;—As cited by Charles Burnett (2001) "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century", pp. 250, 255, &amp; 257, <i>Science in Context</i> <b>14</b>(1/2), 249–288 (2001). DOI: 10.1017/0269889701000096</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kepler, Johannes (1604) <i>Ad Vitellionem paralipomena, quibus astronomiae pars opticae traditur</i> (Supplements to Witelo, in which the optical part of astronomy is treated) as cited in Smith, A. Mark (2004) "What is the history of Medieval Optics Really About?" <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i> <b>148</b>(2&#160;— Jun. 2004), pp. 180-194 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1558283?seq=13#page_scan_tab_contents">p.192 via JSTOR</a></span>
<ul>
<li><span class="reference-text">The full title translation is from p.60 of James R. Voelkel (2001) <i>Johannes Kepler and the New Astronomy</i> Oxford University Press. Kepler was driven to this experiment after observing the partial solar eclipse at Graz, July 10, 1600. He used Tycho Brahe's method of observation, which was to project the image of the sun on a piece of paper through a pinhole aperture, instead of looking directly at the sun. He disagreed with Brahe's conclusion that total eclipses of the sun were impossible, because there were historical accounts of total eclipses. Instead he deduced that the size of the aperture controls the sharpness of the projected image (the larger the aperture, the more accurate the image&#160;— this fact is now fundamental for optical system design). Voelkel, p.61, notes that Kepler's experiments produced the first correct account of vision and the eye, because he realized he could not accurately write about astronomical observation by ignoring the eye.</span></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Science#CITEREFdi_Francia1976">di Francia 1976</a>, p.&#160;13: "The amazing point is that for the first time since the discovery of mathematics, a method has been introduced, the results of which have an intersubjective value!" <i>(Author's punctuation)</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Science#CITEREFdi_Francia1976">di Francia 1976</a>, pp.&#160;4–5: "One learns in a laboratory; one learns how to make experiments only by experimenting, and one learns how to work with his hands only by using them. The first and fundamental form of experimentation in physics is to teach young people to work with their hands. Then they should be taken into a laboratory and taught to work with measuring instruments&#160;— each student carrying out real experiments in physics. This form of teaching is indispensable and cannot be read in a book."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Science#CITEREFFara2009">Fara 2009</a>, p.&#160;204: "Whatever their discipline, scientists claimed to share a common scientific method that&#160;... distinguished them from non-scientists."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Women in science have included:</span>
<ul>
<li><span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a> (c. 350–415 CE), of the Library of Alexandria.</span></li>
<li><span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trotula" title="Trotula">Trotula</a> of Salerno, a physician c. 1060 CE.</span></li>
<li><span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_Herschel" title="Caroline Herschel">Caroline Herschel</a> one of the first professional astronomers of the 18th and 19th centuries.</span></li>
<li><span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Ladd-Franklin" title="Christine Ladd-Franklin">Christine Ladd-Franklin</a>, a doctoral student of C. S. Peirce, who published Wittgenstein's proposition 5.101 in her dissertation, 40 years before Wittgenstein's publication of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a>.</span></li>
<li><span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrietta_Leavitt" title="Henrietta Leavitt" class="mw-redirect">Henrietta Leavitt</a>, a professional human computer and astronomer, who first published the significant relationship between the luminosity of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cepheid_variable" title="Cepheid variable">Cepheid variable</a> stars and their distance from Earth. This allowed Hubble to make the discovery of the expanding universe, which led to the Big Bang theory.</span></li>
<li><span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy_Noether" title="Emmy Noether">Emmy Noether</a>, who proved the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">conservation of energy</a> and other <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constants_of_motion" title="Constants of motion" class="mw-redirect">constants of motion</a> in 1915.</span></li>
<li><span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>, who made discoveries relating to radioactivity along with her husband, and for whom <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Curium</a> is named.</span></li>
<li><span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a>, who worked with x-ray diffraction.</span></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nina_Byers" title="Nina Byers">Nina Byers</a>,<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/">Contributions of 20th Century Women to Physics</a> which provides details on 83 female physicists of the 20th century. By 1976, more women were physicists, and the 83 who were detailed were joined by other women in noticeably larger numbers.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This realization is the topic of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersubjective_verifiability" title="Intersubjective verifiability">intersubjective verifiability</a>, as recounted, for example, by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a> (1949, 1965) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/naturalphilosoph032159mbp/naturalphilosoph032159mbp_djvu.txt"><i>Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance</i></a>, who points out that all knowledge, including natural or social science, is also subjective. p. 162: "Thus it dawned upon me that fundamentally everything is subjective, everything without exception. That was a shock."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Galileo1638-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Science#cite_ref-Galileo1638_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Science#cite_ref-Galileo1638_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">In his investigation of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_falling_bodies" title="Law of falling bodies" class="mw-redirect">law of falling bodies</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a> (1638) serves as example for scientific investigation: <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" title="Two New Sciences">Two New Sciences</a></i> "A piece of wooden moulding or scantling, about 12 cubits long, half a cubit wide, and three finger-breadths thick, was taken; on its edge was cut a channel a little more than one finger in breadth; having made this groove very straight, smooth, and polished, and having lined it with parchment, also as smooth and polished as possible, we rolled along it a hard, smooth, and very round bronze ball. Having placed this board in a sloping position, by lifting one end some one or two cubits above the other, we rolled the ball, as I was just saying, along the channel, noting, in a manner presently to be described, the time required to make the descent. We . . . now rolled the ball only one-quarter the length of the channel; and having measured the time of its descent, we found it precisely one-half of the former. Next we tried other distances, comparing the time for the whole length with that for the half, or with that for two-thirds, or three-fourths, or indeed for any fraction; in such experiments, repeated many, many, times." Galileo solved the problem of time measurement by weighing a jet of water collected during the descent of the bronze ball, as stated in his <i>Two New Sciences</i>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Science#CITEREFGodfrey-Smith2003">Godfrey-Smith 2003</a>, p.&#160;151 credits <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a> (1969) "Epistemology Naturalized" <i>Ontological Relativity and Other Essays</i> New York: Columbia University Press, as well as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, with the basic ideas of naturalism&#160;— <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalized_Epistemology" title="Naturalized Epistemology" class="mw-redirect">Naturalized Epistemology</a>, but Godfrey-Smith diverges from Quine's position: according to Godfrey-Smith, "A naturalist can think that science can contribute to <i>answers</i> to philosophical questions, without thinking that philosophical questions can be replaced by science questions.".</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong."&#160;—<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, noted by Alice Calaprice (ed. 2005) <i>The New Quotable Einstein</i> Princeton University Press and Hebrew University of Jerusalem, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691120749" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-691-12074-9</a> p. 291. Calaprice denotes this not as an exact quotation, but as a paraphrase of a translation of A. Einstein's "Induction and Deduction". <i>Collected Papers of Albert Einstein</i> <b>7</b> Document 28. Volume 7 is <i>The Berlin Years: Writings, 1918–1921</i>. A. Einstein; M. Janssen, R. Schulmann, et al., eds.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwik_Fleck" title="Ludwik Fleck">Fleck, Ludwik</a> (1979). Trenn, Thaddeus J.; Merton, Robert K, eds. <i>Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-25325-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-25325-2">0-226-25325-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Ludwik&amp;rft.aulast=Fleck&amp;rft.btitle=Genesis+and+Development+of+a+Scientific+Fact&amp;rft.date=1979&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-226-25325-2&amp;rft.place=Chicago&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> Claims that before a specific fact "existed", it had to be created as part of a social agreement within a community. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Shapin" title="Steven Shapin">Steven Shapin</a> (1980) "A view of scientific thought" <i>Science</i> ccvii (Mar 7, 1980) 1065–66 states "[To Fleck,] facts are invented, not discovered. Moreover, the appearance of scientific facts as discovered things is itself a social construction: a <i>made</i> thing. "</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<i>Pseudoscientific&#160;– pretending to be scientific, falsely represented as being scientific</i>", from the <i>Oxford American Dictionary</i>, published by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a>; Hansson, Sven Ove (1996)."Defining Pseudoscience", Philosophia Naturalis, 33: 169–176, as cited in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pseudo-science/#NonSciPosSci">"Science and Pseudo-science"</a> (2008) in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Stanford article states: "Many writers on pseudoscience have emphasized that pseudoscience is non-science posing as science. The foremost modern classic on the subject (Gardner 1957) bears the title <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science" title="Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science">Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</a>. According to Brian Baigrie (1988, 438), "[w]hat is objectionable about these beliefs is that they masquerade as genuinely scientific ones." These and many other authors assume that to be pseudoscientific, an activity or a teaching has to satisfy the following two criteria (Hansson 1996): (1) it is not scientific, and (2) its major proponents try to create the impression that it is scientific".</span>
<ul>
<li><span class="reference-text">For example, Hewitt et al. <i>Conceptual Physical Science</i> Addison Wesley; 3 edition (July 18, 2003) <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0321051734" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-321-05173-4</a>, Bennett et al. <i>The Cosmic Perspective</i> 3e Addison Wesley; 3 edition (July 25, 2003) <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805387382" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8053-8738-2</a>; <i>See also</i>, e.g., Gauch HG Jr. <i>Scientific Method in Practice</i> (2003).</span></li>
<li><span class="reference-text">A 2006 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> report on Science and engineering indicators quoted <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Shermer" title="Michael Shermer">Michael Shermer</a>'s (1997) definition of pseudoscience: '"claims presented so that they appear [to be] scientific even though they lack supporting evidence and plausibility"(p. 33). In contrast, science is "a set of methods designed to describe and interpret observed and inferred phenomena, past or present, and aimed at building a testable body of knowledge open to rejection or confirmation"(p. 17)'.<cite class="citation book">Shermer M. (1997). <i>Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time</i>. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-3090-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-3090-1">0-7167-3090-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.au=Shermer+M.&amp;rft.btitle=Why+People+Believe+Weird+Things%3A+Pseudoscience%2C+Superstition%2C+and+Other+Confusions+of+Our+Time&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-7167-3090-1&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman+and+Company&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> as cited by <cite class="citation book">National Science Board. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>, Division of Science Resources Statistics (2006). "Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm"><i>Science and engineering indicators 2006</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.atitle=Science+and+Technology%3A+Public+Attitudes+and+Understanding&amp;rft.au=National+Science+Board.+National+Science+Foundation%2C+Division+of+Science+Resources+Statistics&amp;rft.btitle=Science+and+engineering+indicators+2006&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsf.gov%2Fstatistics%2Fseind06%2Fc7%2Fc7s2.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li>"A pretended or spurious science; a collection of related beliefs about the world mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method or as having the status that scientific truths now have," from the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>, second edition 1989.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-nasa_2004-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Science#cite_ref-nasa_2004_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Science#cite_ref-nasa_2004_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2004/26mar_einstein">Evicting Einstein</a>, March 26, 2004, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. <i>"Both [relativity and quantum mechanics] are extremely successful. The Global Positioning System (GPS), for instance, wouldn't be possible without the theory of relativity. Computers, telecommunications, and the Internet, meanwhile, are spin-offs of quantum mechanics."</i></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._P._Feynman" title="R. P. Feynman" class="mw-redirect">R. P. Feynman</a>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Feynman_Lectures_on_Physics" title="The Feynman Lectures on Physics">The Feynman Lectures on Physics</a></i>, Vol.1, Chaps.1,2,&amp;3.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-EOWilson-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Science#cite_ref-EOWilson_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Science#cite_ref-EOWilson_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Science#cite_ref-EOWilson_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1999" class="citation book">Wilson, Edward (1999). <i>Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge</i>. New York: Vintage. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-76867-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-76867-X">0-679-76867-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Edward&amp;rft.aulast=Wilson&amp;rft.btitle=Consilience%3A+The+Unity+of+Knowledge&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-679-76867-X&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Vintage&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Editorial Staff (March 7, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnrt.scsu.edu/~psc152/A/branches.htm">"The Branches of Science"</a>. South Carolina State University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 28,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.au=Editorial+Staff&amp;rft.btitle=The+Branches+of+Science&amp;rft.date=2008-03-07&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnrt.scsu.edu%2F~psc152%2FA%2Fbranches.htm&amp;rft.pub=South+Carolina+State+University&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Editorial Staff (March 7, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seedmagazine.com/news/2007/03/scientific_method_relationship.php">"Scientific Method: Relationships among Scientific Paradigms"</a>. Seed magazine<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 12,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.au=Editorial+Staff&amp;rft.btitle=Scientific+Method%3A+Relationships+among+Scientific+Paradigms&amp;rft.date=2008-03-07&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seedmagazine.com%2Fnews%2F2007%2F03%2Fscientific_method_relationship.php&amp;rft.pub=Seed+magazine&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Haq-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-Haq_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomanul_Haq" title="Nomanul Haq">Haq, Syed</a> (2009). "Science in Islam". Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. ISSN 1703-7603. Retrieved 2014-10-22.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Sabra-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-Sabra_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._I._Sabra" title="A. I. Sabra">Sabra, A. I.</a> (1989). The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Books I–II–III: On Direct Vision. London: The Warburg Institute, University of London. pp. 25–29. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0854810722" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-85481-072-2</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.light2015.org/Home/ScienceStories/1000-Years-of-Arabic-Optics.html">http://www.light2015.org/Home/ScienceStories/1000-Years-of-Arabic-Optics.html</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">David C. Lindberg</a> (2007), <i>The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context</i>, Second ed. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226482057" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Cahan, David, ed. (2003). <i>From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-08928-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-08928-2">0-226-08928-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.btitle=From+Natural+Philosophy+to+the+Sciences%3A+Writing+the+History+of+Nineteenth-Century+Science&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-226-08928-2&amp;rft.place=Chicago&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <i>Oxford English Dictionary</i> dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Heilbron_2003_p.vii-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Science#cite_ref-Heilbron_2003_p.vii_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Science#cite_ref-Heilbron_2003_p.vii_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Science#CITEREFHeilbron2003">Heilbron 2003</a>, p.&#160;vii</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the quotation in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> (8th&#160;century BCE) <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature#cite_note-2" title="Nature"><i>Odyssey</i> 10.302–3</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Progress or Return" in <i>An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss</i> (Expanded version of <i>Political Philosophy: Six Essays by Leo Strauss</i>, 1975.) Ed. Hilail Gilden. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1989.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strauss and Cropsey eds. <i>History of Political Philosophy</i>, Third edition, p.209.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nikoletseas, Michael M. (2014). <i>Parmenides: The World as Modus Cogitandi</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781492283584" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-4922-8358-4</a>"</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pbs.org/saf/1307/features/knows.htm">"The Origins of Science"</a> <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American_Frontiers" title="Scientific American Frontiers">Scientific American Frontiers</a></i>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plat.Apol.30e&amp;lang=original">Plato, <i>Apology</i> 30e</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">* <cite id="CITEREFSmith2004" class="citation">Smith, A. Mark (June 2004), "What is the History of Medieval Optics Really About?", <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i> <b>148</b> (2): 180–194, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1558283">1558283</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+the+History+of+Medieval+Optics+Really+About%3F&amp;rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&amp;rft.aulast=Smith&amp;rft.date=2004-06&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1558283&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&amp;rft.pages=180-194&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=148" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:p.189</sup></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-news.bbc.co.uk-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-news.bbc.co.uk_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Jim Al-Khalili (January 4, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7810846.stm">"The 'first true scientist<span style="padding-right:0.2em;">'</span>"</a>. BBC News.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.au=Jim+Al-Khalili&amp;rft.btitle=The+%27first+true+scientist%27&amp;rft.date=2009-01-04&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2F7810846.stm&amp;rft.pub=BBC+News&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Science#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith 2001</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/3657358?seq=71#page_scan_tab_contents">p.lxxii, via JSTOR</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, A. Mark (1981), "Getting the Big Picture in Perspectivist Optics" <i>Isis</i> <b>72</b>(#4&#160;— Dec. 1981), pp. 568-589 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/231249?seq=21#page_scan_tab_contents">p.588 via JSTOR</a></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science, by Stephen Hawking, American Heritage's Invention &amp; Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Pope_Urban_VIII-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-Pope_Urban_VIII_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://galileo.rice.edu/gal/urban.html">"Galileo Project – Pope Urban VIII Biography"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.btitle=Galileo+Project+%93+Pope+Urban+VIII+Biography&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgalileo.rice.edu%2Fgal%2Furban.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENolaIrzik2005208-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENolaIrzik2005208_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Science#CITEREFNolaIrzik2005">Nola &amp; Irzik 2005</a>, p.&#160;208.</span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Pease, Craig (September 6, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100619154617/http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm">"Chapter 23. Deliberate bias: Conflict creates bad science"</a>. <i>Science for Business, Law and Journalism</i>. Vermont Law School. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm">the original</a> on June 19, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+23.+Deliberate+bias%3A+Conflict+creates+bad+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Craig&amp;rft.aulast=Pease&amp;rft.date=2006-09-06&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaw-and-science.net%2FScience4BLJ%2FScientific_Method%2FDeliberate.bias%2FText.htm&amp;rft.jtitle=Science+for+Business%2C+Law+and+Journalism&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Krimsky, Sheldon (2003). <i>Science in the Private Interest: Has the Lure of Profits Corrupted the Virtue of Biomedical Research</i>. Rowman &amp; Littlefield. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7425-1479-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7425-1479-X">0-7425-1479-X</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/185926306">185926306</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Sheldon&amp;rft.aulast=Krimsky&amp;rft.btitle=Science+in+the+Private+Interest%3A+Has+the+Lure+of+Profits+Corrupted+the+Virtue+of+Biomedical+Research&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F185926306&amp;rft.isbn=0-7425-1479-X&amp;rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Bulger, Ruth Ellen; Heitman, Elizabeth; Reiser, Stanley Joel (2002). <i>The Ethical Dimensions of the Biological and Health Sciences</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-00886-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-00886-7">0-521-00886-7</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47791316">47791316</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Ruth+Ellen&amp;rft.au=Heitman%2C+Elizabeth&amp;rft.aulast=Bulger&amp;rft.au=Reiser%2C+Stanley+Joel&amp;rft.btitle=The+Ethical+Dimensions+of+the+Biological+and+Health+Sciences&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47791316&amp;rft.isbn=0-521-00886-7&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-backer-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-backer_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Backer, Patricia Ryaby (October 29, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/scientific_method.htm">"What is the scientific method?"</a>. San Jose State University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 28,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Patricia+Ryaby&amp;rft.aulast=Backer&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+the+scientific+method%3F&amp;rft.date=2004-10-29&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.engr.sjsu.edu%2Fpabacker%2Fscientific_method.htm&amp;rft.pub=San+Jose+State+University&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.siam.org/students/resources/report.php">Graduate Education for Computational Science and Engineering</a>, SIAM Working Group on CSE Education. Retrieved April 27, 2008.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Bunge, Mario Augusto (1998). <i>Philosophy of Science: From Problem to Theory</i>. Transaction Publishers. p.&#160;24. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7658-0413-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7658-0413-1">0-7658-0413-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.au=Bunge%2C+Mario+Augusto&amp;rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Science%3A+From+Problem+to+Theory&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-7658-0413-1&amp;rft.pages=24&amp;rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopper200220-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopper200220_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Science#CITEREFPopper2002">Popper 2002</a>, p.&#160;20.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See: <cite class="citation web">Editorial Staff (March 7, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seedmagazine.com/news/2007/03/scientific_method_relationship.php">"Scientific Method: Relationships among Scientific Paradigms"</a>. Seed magazine<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 12,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.au=Editorial+Staff&amp;rft.btitle=Scientific+Method%3A+Relationships+among+Scientific+Paradigms&amp;rft.date=2008-03-07&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seedmagazine.com%2Fnews%2F2007%2F03%2Fscientific_method_relationship.php&amp;rft.pub=Seed+magazine&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-DoubtIs-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-DoubtIs_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wjh13f00">"Original "Doubt is our product&#160;..." memo"</a>. University of California, San Francisco. August 21, 1969<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 3,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.btitle=Original+%22Doubt+is+our+product+...%22+memo&amp;rft.date=1969-08-21&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flegacy.library.ucsf.edu%2Ftid%2Fwjh13f00&amp;rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+San+Francisco&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> The memo reads "Doubt is our product since it is the best means of competing with the 'body of fact' that exists in the mind of the general public. It is also the means of establishing a controversy."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-HorganReview-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-HorganReview_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/18/books/review/18horgan.html?pagewanted=all">"'THE REPUBLICAN WAR ON SCIENCE,' BY CHRIS MOONEY", Political Science, Review by JOHN HORGAN, Published: December 18 2005</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Mooney_(journalist)" title="Chris Mooney (journalist)">Mooney, Chris</a> (2005). <i>The Republican War on Science</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-04676-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-04676-2">0-465-04676-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.au=Mooney%2C+Chris&amp;rft.btitle=The+Republican+War+on+Science&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-465-04676-2&amp;rft.pub=Basic+Books&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-SCAMs-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-SCAMs_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219.x/abstract">William R. Freudenburg, Robert Gramling, Debra J. Davidson (2008)</a> "Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the politics of doubt". <i>Sociological Inquiry</i>. Vol. <b>78</b>, No. 1. 2–38</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hank Campbell, Alex Berezow,. <i>Science Left Behind&#160;: Feel-good Fallacies and the Rise of the Anti-Scientific Left</i> (1st ed.). New York: PublicAffairs. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61039-164-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61039-164-1">978-1-61039-164-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Alex+Berezow%2C&amp;rft.aulast=Hank+Campbell&amp;rft.btitle=Science+Left+Behind+%3A+Feel-good+Fallacies+and+the+Rise+of+the+Anti-Scientific+Left&amp;rft.edition=1st&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-61039-164-1&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=PublicAffairs&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"...&#160;[T]he logical empiricists thought that the great aim of science was to discover and establish <i>generalizations</i>."&#160;—<a href="Science#CITEREFGodfrey-Smith2003">Godfrey-Smith 2003</a>, p.&#160;41</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Bayesianism tries to understand evidence using probability theory."&#160;—<a href="Science#CITEREFGodfrey-Smith2003">Godfrey-Smith 2003</a>, p.&#160;203</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Godfrey-Smith.2C2003-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Science#cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith.2C2003_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Science#cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith.2C2003_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Science#cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith.2C2003_88-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Science#cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith.2C2003_88-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Science#CITEREFGodfrey-Smith2003">Godfrey-Smith 2003</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Popper called this <i>Conjecture and Refutation</i> <a href="Science#CITEREFGodfrey-Smith2003">Godfrey-Smith 2003</a>, pp.&#160;117–8</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Popper: <i>Objective Knowledge</i> (1972)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Newton-Smith, W. H. (1994). <i>The Rationality of Science</i>. London: Routledge. p.&#160;30. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-0913-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-0913-5">0-7100-0913-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.au=Newton-Smith%2C+W.+H.&amp;rft.btitle=The+Rationality+of+Science&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-7100-0913-5&amp;rft.pages=30&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeyerabend1993-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Science#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeyerabend1993_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Science#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeyerabend1993_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Science#CITEREFFeyerabend1993">Feyerabend 1993</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Feyerabend, Paul</a> (1987). <i>Farewell To Reason</i>. Verso. p.&#160;100. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86091-184-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-86091-184-5">0-86091-184-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Paul&amp;rft.aulast=Feyerabend&amp;rft.btitle=Farewell+To+Reason&amp;rft.date=1987&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-86091-184-5&amp;rft.pages=100&amp;rft.pub=Verso&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBrugger.2C_E._Christian2004" class="citation journal">Brugger, E. Christian (2004). "Casebeer, William D. Natural Ethical Facts: Evolution, Connectionism, and Moral Cognition". <i>The Review of Metaphysics</i> <b>58</b> (2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.atitle=Casebeer%2C+William+D.+Natural+Ethical+Facts%3A+Evolution%2C+Connectionism%2C+and+Moral+Cognition&amp;rft.au=Brugger%2C+E.+Christian&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Metaphysics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=58" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-The_Structure_of_Scientific_Theories_in_.27.27The_Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy.27.27-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-The_Structure_of_Scientific_Theories_in_.27.27The_Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy.27.27_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/structure-scientific-theories/">The Structure of Scientific Theories in <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopper1996-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopper1996_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Science#CITEREFPopper1996">Popper 1996</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Stanovich2007-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Science#cite_ref-Stanovich2007_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Science#cite_ref-Stanovich2007_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Science#cite_ref-Stanovich2007_99-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Science#cite_ref-Stanovich2007_99-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Science#cite_ref-Stanovich2007_99-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Science#CITEREFStanovich2007">Stanovich 2007</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Dawkins, Richard; Coyne, Jerry (September 2, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2005/sep/01/schools.research">"One side can be wrong"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i> (London).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.atitle=One+side+can+be+wrong&amp;rft.au=Coyne%2C+Jerry&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft.aulast=Dawkins&amp;rft.date=2005-09-02&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.guardian.co.uk%2Fscience%2F2005%2Fsep%2F01%2Fschools.research&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophybites.com/2007/12/barry-stroud-on.html">"Barry Stroud on Scepticism"</a>. philosophy bites. December 16, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 5,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.btitle=Barry+Stroud+on+Scepticism&amp;rft.date=2007-12-16&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilosophybites.com%2F2007%2F12%2Fbarry-stroud-on.html&amp;rft.pub=philosophy+bites&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce (1877), "The Fixation of Belief", Popular Science Monthly, v. 12, pp. 1–15, see §IV on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKMVAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA6">p. 6–7</a>. Reprinted <i>Collected Papers</i> v. 5, paragraphs 358–87 (see 374–6), <i>Writings</i> v. 3, pp. 242–57 (see 247–8), <i>Essential Peirce</i> v. 1, pp. 109–23 (see 114–15), and elsewhere.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce (1905), "Issues of Pragmaticism", <i>The Monist</i>, v. XV, n. 4, pp. 481–99, see "Character V" on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/monistquart15hegeuoft#page/491/mode/1up">p. 491</a>. Reprinted in <i>Collected Papers</i> v. 5, paragraphs 438–63 (see 451), <i>Essential Peirce</i> v. 2, pp. 346–59 (see 353), and elsewhere.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce (1868), "Some Consequences of Four Incapacities", <i>Journal of Speculative Philosophy</i> v. 2, n. 3, pp. 140–57, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YHkqP2JHJ_IC&amp;pg=RA1-PA141">p. 141</a>. Reprinted in <i>Collected Papers</i>, v. 5, paragraphs 264–317, <i>Writings</i> v. 2, pp. 211–42, <i>Essential Peirce</i> v. 1, pp. 28–55, and elsewhere.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-cargocultscience-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-cargocultscience_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://neurotheory.columbia.edu/~ken/cargo_cult.html">Cargo Cult Science</a> by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman, Richard</a>. Retrieved July 21, 2011.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-COPE1999PDF-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-COPE1999PDF_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928151119/http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf">"Coping with fraud"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>The COPE Report 1999</i>: 11–18. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf">the original</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> on September 28, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 21,</span> 2011</span>. <q>It is 10 years, to the month, since Stephen Lock&#160;... Reproduced with kind permission of the Editor, The Lancet.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.atitle=Coping+with+fraud&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicationethics.org.uk%2Freports%2F1999%2F1999pdf3.pdf&amp;rft.jtitle=The+COPE+Report+1999&amp;rft.pages=11-18&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In mathematics, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meno#Dialogue_with_Meno.27s_slave" title="Meno">Meno</a></i> demonstrates that it is possible to know logical propositions, such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem" title="Pythagorean theorem">Pythagorean theorem</a>, and even to prove them, as cited by <a href="Science#CITEREFCrease2009">Crease 2009</a>, pp.&#160;35–41</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ziman cites <a href="Science#CITEREFPolanyi1958">Polanyi 1958</a> chapter 12, as referenced in <a href="Science#CITEREFZiman1978">Ziman 1978</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Ziman1978-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Science#cite_ref-Ziman1978_111-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Science#cite_ref-Ziman1978_111-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Science#CITEREFZiman1978">Ziman 1978</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Science#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120119113522/http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91">"To Live at All Is Miracle Enough&#160;— Richard Dawkins"</a>. RichardDawkins.net. May 10, 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91">the original</a> on January 19, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 5,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.btitle=To+Live+at+All+Is+Miracle+Enough+%94+Richard+Dawkins&amp;rft.date=2006-05-10&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fricharddawkins.net%2Farticles%2F91&amp;rft.pub=RichardDawkins.net&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-simonton2013-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Science#cite_ref-simonton2013_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Science#cite_ref-simonton2013_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Simonton, Dean Keith (2013). "After Einstein: Scientific genius is extinct". <i>Nature</i> <b>493</b> (7434): 602–602. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F493602a">10.1038/493602a</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.atitle=After+Einstein%3A+Scientific+genius+is+extinct&amp;rft.aufirst=Dean+Keith&amp;rft.aulast=Simonton&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F493602a&amp;rft.issue=7434&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.pages=602-602&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=493" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span></h2>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul>
<li><cite id="CITEREFCrease2009" class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_P._Crease" title="Robert P. Crease">Crease, Robert P.</a> (2009). <i>The Great Equations</i>. New York: W.W. Norton. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06204-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06204-5">978-0-393-06204-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&amp;rft.aulast=Crease&amp;rft.btitle=The+Great+Equations&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-393-06204-5&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFdi_Francia1976" class="citation book">di Francia, Giuliano Toraldo (1976). <i>The Investigation of the Physical World</i>. Originally published in Italian as <i>L'Indagine del Mondo Fisico</i> by Giulio Einaudi editore 1976; first published in English by Cambridge University Press 1981. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29925-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29925-X">0-521-29925-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Giuliano+Toraldo&amp;rft.aulast=di+Francia&amp;rft.btitle=The+Investigation+of+the+Physical+World&amp;rft.date=1976&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-521-29925-X&amp;rft.place=Cambridge&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFFara2009" class="citation book">Fara, Patricia (2009). <i>Science&#160;: a four thousand year history</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.&#160;408. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922689-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922689-4">978-0-19-922689-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Patricia&amp;rft.aulast=Fara&amp;rft.btitle=Science+%3A+a+four+thousand+year+history&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-922689-4&amp;rft.pages=408&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFFeyerabend1993" class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Feyerabend, Paul</a> (1993). <i>Against Method</i> (3rd ed.). London: Verso. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86091-646-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-86091-646-4">0-86091-646-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Paul&amp;rft.aulast=Feyerabend&amp;rft.btitle=Against+Method&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.edition=3rd&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-86091-646-4&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=Verso&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFGodfrey-Smith2003" class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Godfrey-Smith" title="Peter Godfrey-Smith">Godfrey-Smith, Peter</a> (2003). <i>Theory and Reality</i>. Chicago 60637: University of Chicago. p.&#160;272. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-30062-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-30062-5">0-226-30062-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rft.aulast=Godfrey-Smith&amp;rft.btitle=Theory+and+Reality&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-226-30062-5&amp;rft.pages=272&amp;rft.place=Chicago+60637&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron2003" class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._L._Heilbron" title="J. L. Heilbron" class="mw-redirect">Heilbron, J. L. (editor-in-chief)</a> (2003). <i>The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-511229-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-511229-6">0-19-511229-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=J.+L.+%28editor-in-chief%29&amp;rft.aulast=Heilbron&amp;rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+History+of+Modern+Science&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-511229-6&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFLindberg1976" class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">Lindberg, D. C.</a> (1976). <i>Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler</i>. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=D.+C.&amp;rft.aulast=Lindberg&amp;rft.btitle=Theories+of+Vision+from+al-Kindi+to+Kepler&amp;rft.date=1976&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Chicago&amp;rft.pub=Univ.+of+Chicago+Pr.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1954" class="citation journal"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a> (1954). "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" title="Science and Civilisation in China">Science and Civilisation in China</a>: Introductory Orientations" <b>1</b>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.atitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Introductory+Orientations&amp;rft.aufirst=Joseph&amp;rft.aulast=Needham&amp;rft.date=1954&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=1" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFNolaIrzik2005" class="citation book">Nola, Robert; Irzik, Gürol (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HRqDnikufC0C"><i>Philosophy, science, education and culture</i></a>. Science &amp; technology education library <b>28</b>. Springer. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4020-3769-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-4020-3769-4">1-4020-3769-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rft.au=Irzik%2C+G%C3%BCrol&amp;rft.aulast=Nola&amp;rft.btitle=Philosophy%2C+science%2C+education+and+culture&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHRqDnikufC0C&amp;rft.isbn=1-4020-3769-4&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.series=Science+%26+technology+education+library&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFParkin1991" class="citation book">Parkin, D. (1991). "Simultaneity and Sequencing in the Oracular Speech of Kenyan Diviners". In Philip M. Peek. <i>African Divination Systems: Ways of Knowing</i>. Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.atitle=Simultaneity+and+Sequencing+in+the+Oracular+Speech+of+Kenyan+Diviners&amp;rft.aufirst=D.&amp;rft.aulast=Parkin&amp;rft.btitle=African+Divination+Systems%3A+Ways+of+Knowing&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+IN&amp;rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFPolanyi1958" class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Polanyi, Michael</a> (1958). <i>Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-67288-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-67288-3">0-226-67288-3</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft.aulast=Polanyi&amp;rft.btitle=Personal+Knowledge%3A+Towards+a+Post-Critical+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1958&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-226-67288-3&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFPopper1996" class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper, Karl Raimund</a> (1996) [1984]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L33XSZE77OkC"><i>In search of a better world: lectures and essays from thirty years</i></a>. New York, NY: Routledge. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-13548-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-13548-6">0-415-13548-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Karl+Raimund&amp;rft.aulast=Popper&amp;rft.btitle=In+search+of+a+better+world%3A+lectures+and+essays+from+thirty+years&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL33XSZE77OkC&amp;rft.isbn=0-415-13548-6&amp;rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFPopper2002" class="citation book">Popper, Karl R. (2002) [1959]. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i>. New York, NY: Routledge Classics. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-27844-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-27844-9">0-415-27844-9</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59377149">59377149</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Karl+R.&amp;rft.aulast=Popper&amp;rft.btitle=The+Logic+of+Scientific+Discovery&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F59377149&amp;rft.isbn=0-415-27844-9&amp;rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&amp;rft.pub=Routledge+Classics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFStanovich2007" class="citation book">Stanovich, Keith E. (2007). <i>How to Think Straight About Psychology</i>. Boston: Pearson Education. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-68590-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-68590-5">978-0-205-68590-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Keith+E.&amp;rft.aulast=Stanovich&amp;rft.btitle=How+to+Think+Straight+About+Psychology&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-205-68590-5&amp;rft.place=Boston&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Education&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFZiman1978" class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ziman" title="John Ziman">Ziman, John</a> (1978). <i>Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.&#160;197. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-22087-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-22087-4">0-521-22087-4</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft.aulast=Ziman&amp;rft.btitle=Reliable+knowledge%3A+An+exploration+of+the+grounds+for+belief+in+science&amp;rft.date=1978&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-521-22087-4&amp;rft.pages=197&amp;rft.place=Cambridge&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span></h2>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul>
<li>Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N., <i>The New Story of Science: mind and the universe</i>, Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery Gateway, c1984. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0895268337" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-89526-833-7</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Becker" title="Ernest Becker">Becker, Ernest</a> (1968). <i>The structure of evil; an essay on the unification of the science of man</i>. New York: G. Braziller.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Ernest&amp;rft.aulast=Becker&amp;rft.btitle=The+structure+of+evil%3B+an+essay+on+the+unification+of+the+science+of+man&amp;rft.date=1968&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=G.+Braziller&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Cole, K. C., <i>Things your teacher never told you about science: Nine shocking revelations</i> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsday" title="Newsday">Newsday</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Island,_New_York" title="Long Island, New York" class="mw-redirect">Long Island, New York</a>, March 23, 1986, pg 21+</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Crease, Robert P. (2011). <i>World in the Balance: the historic quest for an absolute system of measurement</i>. New York: W.W. Norton. p.&#160;317. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-07298-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-07298-3">978-0-393-07298-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&amp;rft.aulast=Crease&amp;rft.btitle=World+in+the+Balance%3A+the+historic+quest+for+an+absolute+system+of+measurement&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-393-07298-3&amp;rft.pages=317&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Feyerabend, Paul (2005). <i>Science, history of the philosophy</i>, as cited in <cite class="citation book">Honderich, Ted (2005). <i>The Oxford companion to philosophy</i>. Oxford <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfordshire" title="Oxfordshire">Oxfordshire</a>: Oxford University Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-926479-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-926479-1">0-19-926479-1</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/173262485">173262485</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.au=Honderich%2C+Ted&amp;rft.btitle=The+Oxford+companion+to+philosophy&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F173262485&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-926479-1&amp;rft.place=Oxford+Oxfordshire&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Feynman, Richard P. (1999). Robbins, Jeffrey, ed. <i>The pleasure of finding things out the best short works of Richard P. Feynman</i>. Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus Books. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0465013120" title="Special:BookSources/0465013120">0465013120</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&amp;rft.aulast=Feynman&amp;rft.btitle=The+pleasure+of+finding+things+out+the+best+short+works+of+Richard+P.+Feynman&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0465013120&amp;rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&amp;rft.pub=Perseus+Books&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Feynman, R.P. (1999). <i>The Pleasure of Finding Things Out: The Best Short Works of Richard P. Feynman</i>. Perseus Books Group. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-02395-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-02395-9">0-465-02395-9</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/181597764">181597764</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.au=Feynman%2C+R.P.&amp;rft.btitle=The+Pleasure+of+Finding+Things+Out%3A+The+Best+Short+Works+of+Richard+P.+Feynman&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F181597764&amp;rft.isbn=0-465-02395-9&amp;rft.pub=Perseus+Books+Group&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Feynman, Richard <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://calteches.library.caltech.edu/51/02/CargoCult.pdf">"Cargo Cult Science"</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Gaukroger, Stephen (2006). <i>The Emergence of a Scientific Culture: Science and the Shaping of Modernity 1210–1685</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-929644-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-929644-8">0-19-929644-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Stephen&amp;rft.aulast=Gaukroger&amp;rft.btitle=The+Emergence+of+a+Scientific+Culture%3A+Science+and+the+Shaping+of+Modernity+1210%931685&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-929644-8&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Gopnik, Alison, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amacad.org/publications/winter2004/gopnik.pdf">"Finding Our Inner Scientist"</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daedalus_(journal)" title="Daedalus (journal)">Daedalus</a>, Winter 2004.</li>
<li>Krige, John, and Dominique Pestre, eds., <i>Science in the Twentieth Century</i>, Routledge 2003, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415286069" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-415-28606-9</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuval_Levin" title="Yuval Levin">Levin, Yuval</a> (2008). <i>Imagining the Future: Science and American Democracy</i>. New York, Encounter Books. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1594032092" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 1-59403-209-2</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Samuel_Kuhn" title="Thomas Samuel Kuhn" class="mw-redirect">Kuhn, Thomas</a>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i>, 1962.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">William F., McComas (1998). "The principal elements of the nature of science: Dispelling the myths". In McComas, William F. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/roe/Knowability_590/Week2/Myths%20of%20Science.pdf"><i>The nature of science in science education: rationales and strategies</i></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. Springer. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-6168-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-6168-8">978-0-7923-6168-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.atitle=The+principal+elements+of+the+nature+of+science%3A+Dispelling+the+myths&amp;rft.aufirst=McComas&amp;rft.aulast=William+F.&amp;rft.btitle=The+nature+of+science+in+science+education%3A+rationales+and+strategies&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fearthweb.ess.washington.edu%2Froe%2FKnowability_590%2FWeek2%2FMyths%2520of%2520Science.pdf&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7923-6168-8&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Obler, Paul C.; Estrin, Herman A. (1962). <i>The New Scientist: Essays on the Methods and Values of Modern Science</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchor_Books" title="Anchor Books" class="mw-redirect">Anchor Books</a>, Doubleday.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.au=Estrin%2C+Herman+A.&amp;rft.aufirst=Paul+C.&amp;rft.aulast=Obler&amp;rft.btitle=The+New+Scientist%3A+Essays+on+the+Methods+and+Values+of+Modern+Science&amp;rft.date=1962&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=Anchor+Books%2C+Doubleday&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Papineau" title="David Papineau">Papineau, David</a>. (2005). <i>Science, problems of the philosophy of.</i>, as cited in <cite class="citation book">Honderich, Ted (2005). <i>The Oxford companion to philosophy</i>. Oxford <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfordshire" title="Oxfordshire">Oxfordshire</a>: Oxford University Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-926479-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-926479-1">0-19-926479-1</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/173262485">173262485</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.au=Honderich%2C+Ted&amp;rft.btitle=The+Oxford+companion+to+philosophy&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F173262485&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-926479-1&amp;rft.place=Oxford+Oxfordshire&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Russell, Bertrand (1985) [1952]. <i>The Impact of Science on Society</i>. London: Unwin. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-04-300090-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-04-300090-8">0-04-300090-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Bertrand&amp;rft.aulast=Russell&amp;rft.btitle=The+Impact+of+Science+on+Society&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-04-300090-8&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=Unwin&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Rutherford, F. James; Ahlgren, Andrew (1990). <i>Science for all Americans</i>. New York, NY: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>, Oxford University Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-506771-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-506771-1">0-19-506771-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.au=Ahlgren%2C+Andrew&amp;rft.aufirst=F.+James&amp;rft.aulast=Rutherford&amp;rft.btitle=Science+for+all+Americans&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-506771-1&amp;rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&amp;rft.pub=American+Association+for+the+Advancement+of+Science%2C+Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001" class="citation book">Smith, A. Mark (2001). Written at Philadelphia. <i>Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's</i> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Aspectibus" title="De Aspectibus" class="mw-redirect">De Aspectibus</a><i>, the Medieval Latin Version of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham" class="mw-redirect">Ibn al-Haytham</a>'s</i> Kitāb al-Manāẓir<i>, 2 vols</i>. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society <b>91</b>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87169-914-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-87169-914-1">0-87169-914-1</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47168716">47168716</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&amp;rft.aulast=Smith&amp;rft.btitle=Alhacen%27s+Theory+of+Visual+Perception%3A+A+Critical+Edition%2C+with+English+Translation+and+Commentary%2C+of+the+First+Three+Books+of+Alhacen%27s+De+Aspectibus%2C+the+Medieval+Latin+Version+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+Kit%C4%81b+al-Man%C4%81%E1%BA%93ir%2C+2+vols.&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47168716&amp;rft.isbn=0-87169-914-1&amp;rft.place=Philadelphia&amp;rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&amp;rft.series=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/3657358">Books I-III (2001&#160;— <b>91</b>(4)) Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/3657357?seq=1#page_thumbnails_tab_contents">&#160;— <b>91</b>(5) Vol 2 English translation, Book I:TOCpp.339-341, Book II:TOCpp.415-6, Book III:TOCpp.559-560, Notes 681ff, Bibl. via JSTOR</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Thurs, Daniel Patrick (2007). <i>Science Talk: Changing Notions of Science in American Popular Culture</i>. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp.&#160;22–52. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-4073-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-4073-3">978-0-8135-4073-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.aufirst=Daniel+Patrick&amp;rft.aulast=Thurs&amp;rft.btitle=Science+Talk%3A+Changing+Notions+of+Science+in+American+Popular+Culture&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8135-4073-3&amp;rft.pages=22-52&amp;rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+NJ&amp;rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
</ul>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
<table class="metadata plainlinks mbox-small" style="padding:0.25em 0.5em 0.5em 0.75em;border:1px solid #aaa;background:#f9f9f9;">
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at Wikipedia's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div>
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<p><b>Publications</b></p>
<ul>
<li>"<i><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/GCSE_Science" class="extiw" title="b:GCSE Science">GCSE Science textbook</a></i>". <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikibooks" title="Wikibooks">Wikibooks</a>.org</li>
</ul>
<p><b>Resources</b></p>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euroscience.org/">Euroscience</a>:
<ul>
<li><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100610204548/http://www.euroscience.org/esof.html">"ESOF: Euroscience Open Forum"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euroscience.org/esof.html">the original</a> on June 10, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience&amp;rft.btitle=ESOF%3A+Euroscience+Open+Forum&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.euroscience.org%2Fesof.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wayback.archive.org/web/20090504084802/http://www.en.argentina.ar/_en/science-and-education/">Science Development in the <i>Latin American docta</i></a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.id=dv1-57;toc.depth=1;toc.id=dv1-57;brand=default">Classification of the Sciences</a> in <i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i>. (Dictionary's new electronic format is badly botched, entries after "Design" are inaccessible. <i>Internet Archive</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080619205103/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-57">old version</a>).</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/nature/index.shtml">"Nature of Science"</a> <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_Museum_of_Paleontology" title="University of California Museum of Paleontology">University of California Museum of Paleontology</a></i></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.science.gov/">United States Science Initiative</a> Selected science information provided by US Government agencies, including research &amp; development results</li>
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href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="बिज्ञान – भोजपुरी" lang="bh" hreflang="bh">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saens" title="Saens – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissnschoft" title="Wissnschoft – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%9A%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82" title="ཚན་རིག – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka" title="Nauka – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiant" title="Skiant – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BC_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Эрдэм ухаан – буряад" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A8ncia" title="Ciència – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%82%D1%81%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Ăслăх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaalamdag" title="Kaalamdag – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%9Bda" title="Věda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwyddoniaeth" title="Gwyddoniaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videnskab" title="Videnskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaft" title="Wissenschaft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teadus" title="Teadus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B7" title="Επιστήμη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia" title="Ciencia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienco" title="Scienco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9ncia" title="Céncia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zientzia" title="Zientzia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="علم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigyan" title="Vigyan – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wittenskip" title="Wittenskip – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sience" title="Sience – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eola%C3%ADocht" title="Eolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oaylleeaght" title="Oaylleeaght – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saidheans" title="Saidheans – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia" title="Ciencia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="科學 – Gan Chinese" lang="gan" hreflang="gan">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9E%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8" title="વિજ્ઞાન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%B4-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Khô-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak">客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99" title="과학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmi" title="Ilmi – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akeakamai" title="Akeakamai – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw">Hawai`i</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanost" title="Znanost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cienco" title="Cienco – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amamihe" title="Amamihe – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensia" title="Siensia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu" title="Ilmu – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientia" title="Scientia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientie" title="Scientie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Зонад – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inzululwazi" title="Inzululwazi – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADsindi" title="Vísindi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza" title="Scienza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2" title="מדע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88lmu" title="Èlmu – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv">Basa Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Илму – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="მეცნიერება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%99czba" title="Ùczba – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC" title="Ғылым – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godhonieth" title="Godhonieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayansi" title="Sayansi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kizabu" title="Kizabu – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syans" title="Syans – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanist" title="Zanist – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Илим – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Илим – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ວິທະຍາສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientia_(ratio)" title="Scientia (ratio) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zin%C4%81tne" title="Zinātne – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%ABssenschaft" title="Wëssenschaft – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mokslas" title="Mokslas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weitesjap" title="Weitesjap – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/saske" title="saske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo">Lojban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza" title="Scienza – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo">Lumbaart</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudom%C3%A1ny" title="Tudomány – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siansa" title="Siansa – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xjenza" title="Xjenza – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%ABtaiao" title="Pūtaiao – Maori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="علم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sains" title="Sains – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sains" title="Sains – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min">Baso Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku%C5%8F-h%C5%8Fk" title="Kuŏ-hŏk – Min Dong Chinese" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo">Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A9ncia" title="Ciéncia – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%85_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Шинжлэх ухаан – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AD%E1%80%95%E1%80%B9%E1%80%95%E1%80%B6%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC" title="သိပ္ပံပညာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlamatiliztli" title="Tlamatiliztli – Nāhuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschap" title="Wetenschap – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschop" title="Wetenschop – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE" title="दुसिका – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="科学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Ӏилма – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedenskap" title="Wedenskap – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saiens" title="Saiens – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitenskap" title="Vitenskap – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitskap" title="Vitskap – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienche" title="Scienche – Nouormand" lang="nrm" hreflang="nrm">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sci%C3%A9ncia" title="Sciéncia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5" title="Шанче – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Oriya" lang="or" hreflang="or">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saayinsii" title="Saayinsii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan" title="Fan – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="سائنس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siencia" title="Siencia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="پوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syinches" title="Syinches – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensa" title="Siensa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschop" title="Wetenschop – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka" title="Nauka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%AAncia" title="Ciência – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilim" title="Ilim – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0lim" title="İlim – Crimean Turkish" lang="crh" hreflang="crh">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98tiin%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Știință – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza" title="Scienza – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamut%27ay" title="Hamut'ay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D3%A9%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%85" title="Үөрэх – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saienisi" title="Saienisi – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="विज्ञानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isci%C3%A8ntzia" title="Iscièntzia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayense" title="Sayense – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st">Sesotho</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutamahlale" title="Thutamahlale – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shkenca" title="Shkenca – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza" title="Scienza – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="නවීන විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="سائنس – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isayensi" title="Isayensi – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss">SiSwati</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanost" title="Znanost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saynis" title="Saynis – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="زانست – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skoro" title="Skoro – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn">Sranantongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka" title="Nauka – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lmu" title="Élmu – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su">Basa Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiede" title="Tiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetenskap" title="Vetenskap – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agham" title="Agham – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="அறிவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BD" title="Фән – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9E%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="విజ్ఞానశాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="วิทยาศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%BC" title="Илм – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ve"><a href="https://ve.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saintsi" title="Saintsi – Venda" lang="ve" hreflang="ve">Tshivenda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilim" title="Bilim – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ylym" title="Ylym – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A8%94%E1%A8%95%E1%A8%97%E1%A8%8A%E1%A8%94" title="ᨔᨕᨗᨊᨔ – Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug">ᨅᨔ ᨕᨘᨁᨗ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="سائنس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gohyoz" title="Gohyoz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sienza" title="Sienza – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tedo" title="Tedo – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoa_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Khoa học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiid%C3%BCs" title="Tiidüs – Võro" lang="fiu-vro" hreflang="fiu-vro">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syince" title="Syince – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%BC%E8%87%B4" title="格致 – Classical Chinese" lang="zh-classical" hreflang="zh-classical">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weetnschap" title="Weetnschap – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syensya" title="Syensya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xam-xam" title="Xam-xam – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="科学 – Wu Chinese" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciences" title="Sciences – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A0%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%98" title="וויסנשאפט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1y%E1%BA%B9%CC%81ns%C3%AC" title="Sáyẹ́nsì – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="科學 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muokslos" title="Muokslos – Samogitian" lang="bat-smg" hreflang="bat-smg">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="科学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai">मैथिली</a></li><li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="Science#"></a></li>					</ul>
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