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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Programming language</h1>
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<a href="/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">Source code</a> of a simple computer program written in the <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C programming language</a>, which will output the "<a href="/wiki/%22Hello,_World!%22_program" title="&quot;Hello, World!&quot; program">Hello, world!</a>" message when <a href="/wiki/Compiled" title="Compiled" class="mw-redirect">compiled</a> and run</div>
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<p>A <b>programming language</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">formal</a> <a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">constructed language</a> designed to communicate <a href="/wiki/Machine_instruction" title="Machine instruction" class="mw-redirect">instructions</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">machine</a>, particularly a <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a>. Programming languages can be used to create <a href="/wiki/Program_(machine)" title="Program (machine)">programs</a> to control the behavior of a machine or to express <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a>.</p>
<p>The earliest known programmable machine preceded the <a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">invention of the digital computer</a> and is the automatic flute player described in the 9th century by the brothers Musa in Baghdad, at the time a major centre of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> From the early 1800s, "programs" were used to direct the behavior of machines such as <a href="/wiki/Jacquard_loom" title="Jacquard loom">Jacquard looms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Player_piano" title="Player piano">player pianos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computer field, and many more still are being created every year. Many programming languages require computation to be specified in an <a href="/wiki/Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">imperative</a> form (i.e., as a sequence of operations to perform), while other languages use other forms of program specification such as the <a href="/wiki/Declarative_programming" title="Declarative programming">declarative</a> form (i.e. the desired result is specified, not how to achieve it).</p>
<p>The description of a programming language is usually split into the two components of <a href="/wiki/Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">syntax</a> (form) and <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a> (meaning). Some languages are defined by a specification document (for example, the <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> programming language is specified by an <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">ISO</a> Standard), while other languages (such as <a href="/wiki/Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a>) have a dominant <a href="/wiki/Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language implementation">implementation</a> that is treated as a <a href="/wiki/Reference_implementation" title="Reference implementation">reference</a>. Some languages have both, with the basic language defined by a standard and extensions taken from the dominant implementation being common.</p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Definitions"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Definitions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Early_developments"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Early developments</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Refinement"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Refinement</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Consolidation_and_growth"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Consolidation and growth</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Elements"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Elements</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Syntax"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Syntax</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Semantics"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Semantics</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Static_semantics"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Static semantics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Dynamic_semantics"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Dynamic semantics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Type_system"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Type system</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-12"><a href="#Typed_versus_untyped_languages"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Typed versus untyped languages</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-13"><a href="#Static_versus_dynamic_typing"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Static versus dynamic typing</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-14"><a href="#Weak_and_strong_typing"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Weak and strong typing</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Standard_library_and_run-time_system"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Standard library and run-time system</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Design_and_implementation"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Design and implementation</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Specification"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Specification</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Implementation"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Implementation</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Proprietary_languages"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Proprietary languages</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Usage"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Usage</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Measuring_language_usage"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Measuring language usage</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Taxonomies"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Taxonomies</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Definitions">Definitions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>A programming language is a notation for writing <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">programs</a>, which are specifications of a computation or <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aaby_2004_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aaby_2004-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> Some, but not all, authors restrict the term "programming language" to those languages that can express <i>all</i> possible algorithms.<sup id="cite_ref-Aaby_2004_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aaby_2004-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> Traits often considered important for what constitutes a programming language include:</p>
<dl>
<dt>Function and target</dt>
<dd>A <i>computer programming language</i> is a <a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">language</a> used to write <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">computer programs</a>, which involve a <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> performing some kind of computation<sup id="cite_ref-sigplan_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sigplan-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a> and possibly control external devices such as <a href="/wiki/Printer_(computing)" title="Printer (computing)">printers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disk_drive" title="Disk drive" class="mw-redirect">disk drives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">robots</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-robots_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-robots-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> and so on. For example, <a href="/wiki/PostScript" title="PostScript">PostScript</a> programs are frequently created by another program to control a computer printer or display. More generally, a programming language may describe computation on some, possibly abstract, machine. It is generally accepted that a complete specification for a programming language includes a description, possibly idealized, of a machine or processor for that language.<sup id="cite_ref-nara2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nara2-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> In most practical contexts, a programming language involves a computer; consequently, programming languages are usually defined and studied this way.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> Programming languages differ from <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural languages</a> in that natural languages are only used for interaction between people, while programming languages also allow humans to communicate instructions to machines.</dd>
<dt>Abstractions</dt>
<dd>Programming languages usually contain <a href="/wiki/Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">abstractions</a> for defining and manipulating <a href="/wiki/Data_structure" title="Data structure">data structures</a> or controlling the <a href="/wiki/Control_flow" title="Control flow">flow of execution</a>. The practical necessity that a programming language support adequate abstractions is expressed by the <a href="/wiki/Abstraction_principle_(programming)" title="Abstraction principle (programming)" class="mw-redirect">abstraction principle</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> this principle is sometimes formulated as recommendation to the programmer to make proper use of such abstractions.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></dd>
<dt>Expressive power</dt>
<dd>The <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">theory of computation</a> classifies languages by the computations they are capable of expressing. All <a href="/wiki/Turing_completeness" title="Turing completeness">Turing complete</a> languages can implement the same set of <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a>. <a href="/wiki/SQL-92" title="SQL-92">ANSI/ISO SQL-92</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charity_(programming_language)" title="Charity (programming language)">Charity</a> are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, yet often called programming languages.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup></dd>
</dl>
<p><a href="/wiki/Markup_languages" title="Markup languages" class="mw-redirect">Markup languages</a> like <a href="/wiki/XML" title="XML">XML</a>, <a href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a> or <a href="/wiki/Troff" title="Troff">troff</a>, which define <a href="/wiki/Structured_data" title="Structured data" class="mw-redirect">structured data</a>, are not usually considered programming languages.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup> Programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined. <a href="/wiki/XSLT" title="XSLT">XSLT</a>, for example, is a <a href="/wiki/Turing_completeness" title="Turing completeness">Turing complete</a> XML dialect.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup> Moreover, <a href="/wiki/LaTeX" title="LaTeX">LaTeX</a>, which is mostly used for structuring documents, also contains a Turing complete subset.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>The term <i>computer language</i> is sometimes used interchangeably with programming language.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup> However, the usage of both terms varies among authors, including the exact scope of each. One usage describes programming languages as a subset of computer languages.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup> In this vein, languages used in computing that have a different goal than expressing computer programs are generically designated computer languages. For instance, markup languages are sometimes referred to as computer languages to emphasize that they are not meant to be used for programming.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Another usage regards programming languages as theoretical constructs for programming abstract machines, and computer languages as the subset thereof that runs on physical computers, which have finite hardware resources.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_C._Reynolds" title="John C. Reynolds">John C. Reynolds</a> emphasizes that <a href="/wiki/Formal_specification" title="Formal specification">formal specification</a> languages are just as much programming languages as are the languages intended for execution. He also argues that textual and even graphical input formats that affect the behavior of a computer are programming languages, despite the fact they are commonly not Turing-complete, and remarks that ignorance of programming language concepts is the reason for many flaws in input formats.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming languages">History of programming languages</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_developments">Early developments</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Early developments">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The earliest computers were often programmed without the help of a programming language, by writing programs in absolute <a href="/wiki/Machine_language" title="Machine language" class="mw-redirect">machine language</a>. The programs, in decimal or binary form, were read in from <a href="/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">punched cards</a> or <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_tape_data_storage" title="Magnetic tape data storage">magnetic tape</a>, or toggled in on switches on the <a href="/wiki/Front_panel" title="Front panel">front panel</a> of the computer. Absolute machine languages were later termed <i><a href="/wiki/First-generation_programming_language" title="First-generation programming language">first-generation programming languages</a></i>.</p>
<p>The next step was development of so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_programming_language" title="Second-generation programming language">second-generation programming languages</a></i> (2GL) or <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly languages</a>, which were still closely tied to the <a href="/wiki/Instruction_set_architecture" title="Instruction set architecture" class="mw-redirect">instruction set architecture</a> of the specific computer. These served to make the program much more human-readable, and relieved the programmer of tedious and error-prone address calculations.</p>
<p>The first <i><a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming language</a></i>s, or <i>third-generation programming languages</i> (3GL), were written in the 1950s. An early high-level programming language to be designed for a computer was <a href="/wiki/Plankalk%C3%BCl" title="Plankalkül">Plankalkül</a>, developed for the German <a href="/wiki/Z3_(computer)" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a> by <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a> between 1943 and 1945. However, it was not implemented until 1998 and 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/John_Mauchly" title="John Mauchly">John Mauchly</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Short_Code_(computer_language)" title="Short Code (computer language)">Short Code</a>, proposed in 1949, was one of the first high-level languages ever developed for an <a href="/wiki/Electronic_computer" title="Electronic computer" class="mw-redirect">electronic computer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sebesta_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sebesta-27"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup> Unlike <a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a>, Short Code statements represented mathematical expressions in understandable form. However, the program had to be translated into <a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a> every time it ran, making the process much slower than running the equivalent <a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a>.</p>
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The <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Mark_1" title="Manchester Mark 1">Manchester Mark 1</a> ran programs written in <a href="/wiki/Autocode" title="Autocode">Autocode</a> from 1952.</div>
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<p>At the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alick_Glennie" title="Alick Glennie">Alick Glennie</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Autocode" title="Autocode">Autocode</a> in the early 1950s. A <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">programming language</a>, it used a <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a> to automatically convert the language into machine code. The first code and compiler was developed in 1952 for the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Mark_1" title="Manchester Mark 1">Mark 1</a> computer at the University of Manchester and is considered to be the first <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiled</a> high-level programming language.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>The second autocode was developed for the Mark 1 by <a href="/wiki/Tony_Brooker" title="Tony Brooker">R. A. Brooker</a> in 1954 and was called the "Mark 1 Autocode". Brooker also developed an autocode for the <a href="/wiki/Ferranti_Mercury" title="Ferranti Mercury">Ferranti Mercury</a> in the 1950s in conjunction with the University of Manchester. The version for the <a href="/wiki/EDSAC" title="EDSAC" class="mw-redirect">EDSAC 2</a> was devised by <a href="/wiki/David_Hartley_(computer_scientist)" title="David Hartley (computer scientist)">D. F. Hartley</a> of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge_Mathematical_Laboratory" title="University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory" class="mw-redirect">University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory</a> in 1961. Known as EDSAC 2 Autocode, it was a straight development from Mercury Autocode adapted for local circumstances, and was noted for its object code optimisation and source-language diagnostics which were advanced for the time. A contemporary but separate thread of development, <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Autocode" title="Atlas Autocode">Atlas Autocode</a> was developed for the University of Manchester <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Computer_(Manchester)" title="Atlas Computer (Manchester)" class="mw-redirect">Atlas 1</a> machine.</p>
<p>In 1954, language <a href="/wiki/FORTRAN" title="FORTRAN" class="mw-redirect">FORTRAN</a> was invented at IBM by <a href="/wiki/John_Backus" title="John Backus">John Backus</a>; it was the first widely used <a href="/wiki/High-level_language" title="High-level language" class="mw-redirect">high level general purpose programming language</a> to have a functional implementation, as opposed to just a design on paper.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup> It is still popular language for <a href="/wiki/High-performance_computing" title="High-performance computing" class="mw-redirect">high-performance computing</a><sup id="cite_ref-hpc_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hpc-32"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup> and is used for programs that benchmark and rank the world's <a href="/wiki/TOP500" title="TOP500">fastest supercomputers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Another early programming language was devised by <a href="/wiki/Grace_Hopper" title="Grace Hopper">Grace Hopper</a> in the US, called <a href="/wiki/FLOW-MATIC" title="FLOW-MATIC">FLOW-MATIC</a>. It was developed for the <a href="/wiki/UNIVAC_I" title="UNIVAC I">UNIVAC I</a> at <a href="/wiki/Remington_Rand" title="Remington Rand">Remington Rand</a> during the period from 1955 until 1959. Hopper found that business data processing customers were uncomfortable with mathematical notation, and in early 1955, she and her team wrote a specification for an <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> programming language and implemented a prototype.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup> The FLOW-MATIC compiler became publicly available in early 1958 and was substantially complete in 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup> Flow-Matic was a major influence in the design of <a href="/wiki/COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a>, since only it and its direct descendant <a href="/wiki/AIMACO" title="AIMACO" class="mw-redirect">AIMACO</a> were in actual use at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Refinement">Refinement</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Refinement">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The increased use of high-level languages introduced a requirement for <i><a href="/wiki/Low-level_programming_language" title="Low-level programming language">low-level programming languages</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/System_programming_language" title="System programming language">system programming languages</a></i>. These languages, to varying degrees, provide facilities between assembly languages and high-level languages, and can be used to perform tasks which require direct access to hardware facilities but still provide higher-level control structures and error-checking.</p>
<p>The period from the 1960s to the late 1970s brought the development of the major language paradigms now in use:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/APL_(programming_language)" title="APL (programming language)">APL</a> introduced <i><a href="/wiki/Array_programming" title="Array programming">array programming</a></i> and influenced <a href="/wiki/Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional programming</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ALGOL" title="ALGOL">ALGOL</a> refined both <i>structured procedural programming</i> and the discipline of <a href="/wiki/Programming_language_specification" title="Programming language specification">language specification</a>; the "Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language <a href="/wiki/ALGOL_60" title="ALGOL 60">ALGOL 60</a>" became a model for how later language specifications were written.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>, implemented in 1958, was the first dynamically typed <i><a href="/wiki/Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional programming</a></i> language</li>
<li>In the 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Simula" title="Simula">Simula</a> was the first language designed to support <i><a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented programming</a></i>; in the mid-1970s, <a href="/wiki/Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a> followed with the first "purely" object-oriented language.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> was developed between 1969 and 1973 as a system programming language for the <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> operating system, and remains popular.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a>, designed in 1972, was the first <i><a href="/wiki/Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">logic programming</a></i> language.</li>
<li>In 1978, <a href="/wiki/ML_(programming_language)" title="ML (programming language)">ML</a> built a polymorphic type system on top of <a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>, pioneering <i><a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">statically typed</a> <a href="/wiki/Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional programming</a></i> languages.</li>
</ul>
<p>Each of these languages spawned descendants, and most modern programming languages count at least one of them in their ancestry.</p>
<p>The 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over the merits of <i><a href="/wiki/Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">structured programming</a></i>, and whether programming languages should be designed to support it.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger Dijkstra</a>, in a famous 1968 letter published in the <a href="/wiki/Communications_of_the_ACM" title="Communications of the ACM">Communications of the ACM</a>, argued that <a href="/wiki/Goto" title="Goto">GOTO</a> statements should be eliminated from all "higher level" programming languages.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Consolidation_and_growth">Consolidation and growth</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Consolidation and growth">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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A selection of textbooks that teach programming, in languages both popular and obscure. These are only a few of the thousands of programming languages and dialects that have been designed in history.</div>
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<p>The 1980s were years of relative consolidation. <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> combined object-oriented and systems programming. The United States government standardized <a href="/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)" title="Ada (programming language)">Ada</a>, a systems programming language derived from <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a> and intended for use by defense contractors. In Japan and elsewhere, vast sums were spent investigating so-called <a href="/wiki/Fifth-generation_programming_language" title="Fifth-generation programming language">"fifth generation" languages</a> that incorporated logic programming constructs.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></a></sup> The functional languages community moved to standardize <a href="/wiki/ML_(programming_language)" title="ML (programming language)">ML</a> and Lisp. Rather than inventing new paradigms, all of these movements elaborated upon the ideas invented in the previous decades.</p>
<p>One important trend in language design for programming large-scale systems during the 1980s was an increased focus on the use of <i>modules</i>, or large-scale organizational units of code. <a href="/wiki/Modula-2" title="Modula-2">Modula-2</a>, Ada, and ML all developed notable module systems in the 1980s, which were often wedded to <a href="/wiki/Generic_programming" title="Generic programming">generic programming</a> constructs.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span>[</span>42<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>The rapid growth of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> in the mid-1990s created opportunities for new languages. <a href="/wiki/Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a>, originally a Unix scripting tool first released in 1987, became common in dynamic <a href="/wiki/Website" title="Website">websites</a>. <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> came to be used for server-side programming, and bytecode virtual machines became popular again in commercial settings with their promise of "<a href="/wiki/Write_once,_run_anywhere" title="Write once, run anywhere">Write once, run anywhere</a>" (<a href="/wiki/UCSD_Pascal" title="UCSD Pascal">UCSD Pascal</a> had been popular for a time in the early 1980s). These developments were not fundamentally novel, rather they were refinements of many existing languages and paradigms (although their syntax was often based on the C family of programming languages).</p>
<p>Programming language evolution continues, in both industry and research. Current directions include security and reliability verification, new kinds of modularity (<a href="/wiki/Mixin" title="Mixin">mixins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delegation_(programming)" title="Delegation (programming)">delegates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aspect-oriented_programming" title="Aspect-oriented programming">aspects</a>), and database integration such as Microsoft's <a href="/wiki/Language_Integrated_Query" title="Language Integrated Query">LINQ</a>.</p>
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Fourth-generation_programming_language" title="Fourth-generation programming language">Fourth-generation programming languages</a></i> (4GL) are a computer programming languages which aim to provide a higher level of abstraction of the internal computer hardware details than 3GLs. <i><a href="/wiki/Fifth_generation_programming_language" title="Fifth generation programming language" class="mw-redirect">Fifth generation programming languages</a></i> (5GL) are programming languages based on solving problems using constraints given to the program, rather than using an <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a> written by a programmer.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Elements">Elements</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Elements">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>All programming languages have some <a href="/wiki/Language_primitive" title="Language primitive">primitive</a> building blocks for the description of data and the processes or transformations applied to them (like the addition of two numbers or the selection of an item from a collection). These primitives are defined by syntactic and semantic rules which describe their structure and meaning respectively.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Syntax">Syntax</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Syntax">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<a href="/wiki/Parse_tree" title="Parse tree">Parse tree</a> of Python code with inset tokenization</div>
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<a href="/wiki/Syntax_highlighting" title="Syntax highlighting">Syntax highlighting</a> is often used to aid programmers in recognizing elements of source code. The language above is <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>.</div>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">Syntax (programming languages)</a></div>
<p>A programming language's surface form is known as its <a href="/wiki/Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">syntax</a>. Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages. On the other hand, there are some programming languages which are more <a href="/wiki/Visual_programming_language" title="Visual programming language">graphical</a> in nature, using visual relationships between symbols to specify a program.</p>
<p>The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program. The meaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics (either <a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_of_programming_languages" title="Formal semantics of programming languages" class="mw-redirect">formal</a> or hard-coded in a <a href="/wiki/Reference_implementation_(computing)" title="Reference implementation (computing)" class="mw-redirect">reference implementation</a>). Since most languages are textual, this article discusses textual syntax.</p>
<p>Programming language syntax is usually defined using a combination of <a href="/wiki/Regular_expression" title="Regular expression">regular expressions</a> (for <a href="/wiki/Lexical_analysis" title="Lexical analysis">lexical</a> structure) and <a href="/wiki/Backus%E2%80%93Naur_Form" title="Backus–Naur Form">Backus–Naur Form</a> (for <a href="/wiki/Context-free_grammar" title="Context-free grammar">grammatical</a> structure). Below is a simple grammar, based on <a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>:</p>
<div class="mw-highlight mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">
<pre>
expression <span class="o">::=</span> atom | list
atom       <span class="o">::=</span> number | symbol
number     <span class="o">::=</span> [+-]?['0'-'9']+
symbol     <span class="o">::=</span> ['A'-'Z''a'-'z'].*
list       <span class="o">::=</span> '(' expression* ')'
</pre></div>
<p>This grammar specifies the following:</p>
<ul>
<li>an <i>expression</i> is either an <i>atom</i> or a <i>list</i>;</li>
<li>an <i>atom</i> is either a <i>number</i> or a <i>symbol</i>;</li>
<li>a <i>number</i> is an unbroken sequence of one or more decimal digits, optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign;</li>
<li>a <i>symbol</i> is a letter followed by zero or more of any characters (excluding whitespace); and</li>
<li>a <i>list</i> is a matched pair of parentheses, with zero or more <i>expressions</i> inside it.</li>
</ul>
<p>The following are examples of well-formed token sequences in this grammar: <code>12345</code>, <code>()</code> and <code>(a b c232 (1))</code>.</p>
<p>Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct. Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per the language's rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution. In some cases, such programs may exhibit <a href="/wiki/Undefined_behavior" title="Undefined behavior">undefined behavior</a>. Even when a program is well-defined within a language, it may still have a meaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it.</p>
<p>Using <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a> as an example, it may not be possible to assign a meaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false:</p>
<ul>
<li>"<a href="/wiki/Colorless_green_ideas_sleep_furiously" title="Colorless green ideas sleep furiously">Colorless green ideas sleep furiously</a>." is grammatically well-formed but has no generally accepted meaning.</li>
<li>"John is a married bachelor." is grammatically well-formed but expresses a meaning that cannot be true.</li>
</ul>
<p>The following C language fragment is syntactically correct, but performs operations that are not semantically defined (the operation <tt>*p &gt;&gt; 4</tt> has no meaning for a value having a complex type and <tt>p-&gt;im</tt> is not defined because the value of <tt>p</tt> is the <a href="/wiki/Pointer_(computer_programming)" title="Pointer (computer programming)">null pointer</a>):</p>
<div class="mw-highlight mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">
<pre>
<span class="n">complex</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">complex</span> <span class="n">abs_p</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">p</span> <span class="o">&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="mi">4</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">p</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">im</span><span class="p">);</span>
</pre></div>
<p>If the <a href="/wiki/Type_declaration" title="Type declaration" class="mw-redirect">type declaration</a> on the first line were omitted, the program would trigger an error on compilation, as the variable "p" would not be defined. But the program would still be syntactically correct, since type declarations provide only semantic information.</p>
<p>The grammar needed to specify a programming language can be classified by its position in the <a href="/wiki/Chomsky_hierarchy" title="Chomsky hierarchy">Chomsky hierarchy</a>. The syntax of most programming languages can be specified using a Type-2 grammar, i.e., they are <a href="/wiki/Context-free_grammar" title="Context-free grammar">context-free grammars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup> Some languages, including Perl and Lisp, contain constructs that allow execution during the parsing phase. Languages that have constructs that allow the programmer to alter the behavior of the parser make syntax analysis an <a href="/wiki/Undecidable_problem" title="Undecidable problem">undecidable problem</a>, and generally blur the distinction between parsing and execution.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></a></sup> In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Lisp_macro" title="Lisp macro" class="mw-redirect">Lisp's macro system</a> and Perl's <code>BEGIN</code> blocks, which may contain general computations, C macros are merely string replacements, and do not require code execution.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span>[</span>45<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Semantics">Semantics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Semantics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The term <a href="/wiki/Semantics#Computer_science" title="Semantics">Semantics</a> refers to the meaning of languages, as opposed to their form (<a href="#Syntax">syntax</a>).</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Static_semantics">Static semantics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Static semantics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The static semantics defines restrictions on the structure of valid texts that are hard or impossible to express in standard syntactic formalisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Aaby_2004_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aaby_2004-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> For compiled languages, static semantics essentially include those semantic rules that can be checked at compile time. Examples include checking that every <a href="/wiki/Identifier" title="Identifier">identifier</a> is declared before it is used (in languages that require such declarations) or that the labels on the arms of a <a href="/wiki/Case_statement" title="Case statement" class="mw-redirect">case statement</a> are distinct.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span>[</span>46<span>]</span></a></sup> Many important restrictions of this type, like checking that identifiers are used in the appropriate context (e.g. not adding an integer to a function name), or that <a href="/wiki/Subroutine" title="Subroutine">subroutine</a> calls have the appropriate number and type of arguments, can be enforced by defining them as rules in a <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> called a <a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">type system</a>. Other forms of <a href="/wiki/Static_code_analysis" title="Static code analysis" class="mw-redirect">static analyses</a> like <a href="/wiki/Data_flow_analysis" title="Data flow analysis" class="mw-redirect">data flow analysis</a> may also be part of static semantics. Newer programming languages like <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> and <a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a> have <a href="/wiki/Definite_assignment_analysis" title="Definite assignment analysis">definite assignment analysis</a>, a form of data flow analysis, as part of their static semantics.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Dynamic_semantics">Dynamic semantics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Dynamic semantics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Semantics_of_programming_languages" title="Semantics of programming languages" class="mw-redirect">Semantics of programming languages</a></div>
<p>Once data has been specified, the machine must be instructed to perform operations on the data. For example, the semantics may define the <a href="/wiki/Evaluation_strategy" title="Evaluation strategy">strategy</a> by which expressions are evaluated to values, or the manner in which <a href="/wiki/Control_flow" title="Control flow">control structures</a> conditionally execute <a href="/wiki/Statement_(computer_science)" title="Statement (computer science)">statements</a>. The <i>dynamic semantics</i> (also known as <i>execution semantics</i>) of a language defines how and when the various constructs of a language should produce a program behavior. There are many ways of defining execution semantics. Natural language is often used to specify the execution semantics of languages commonly used in practice. A significant amount of academic research went into <a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_of_programming_languages" title="Formal semantics of programming languages" class="mw-redirect">formal semantics of programming languages</a>, which allow execution semantics to be specified in a formal manner. Results from this field of research have seen limited application to programming language design and implementation outside academia.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Type_system">Type system</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Type system">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Data_type" title="Data type">Data type</a>, <a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">Type system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Type_safety" title="Type safety">Type safety</a></div>
<p>A type system defines how a programming language classifies values and expressions into <i>types</i>, how it can manipulate those types and how they interact. The goal of a type system is to verify and usually enforce a certain level of correctness in programs written in that language by detecting certain incorrect operations. Any <a href="/wiki/Decidability_(logic)" title="Decidability (logic)">decidable</a> type system involves a trade-off: while it rejects many incorrect programs, it can also prohibit some correct, albeit unusual programs. In order to bypass this downside, a number of languages have <i>type loopholes</i>, usually unchecked <a href="/wiki/Type_conversion#Explicit_type_conversion" title="Type conversion">casts</a> that may be used by the programmer to explicitly allow a normally disallowed operation between different types. In most typed languages, the type system is used only to <a href="/wiki/Type_checking" title="Type checking" class="mw-redirect">type check</a> programs, but a number of languages, usually functional ones, <a href="/wiki/Type_inference" title="Type inference">infer types</a>, relieving the programmer from the need to write type annotations. The formal design and study of type systems is known as <i><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">type theory</a></i>.</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Typed_versus_untyped_languages">Typed versus untyped languages</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Typed versus untyped languages">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>A language is <i>typed</i> if the specification of every operation defines types of data to which the operation is applicable, with the implication that it is not applicable to other types.<sup id="cite_ref-typing_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-typing-47"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup> For example, the data represented by <code>"this text between the quotes"</code> is a <a href="/wiki/String_literal" title="String literal">string</a>, and in many programming languages dividing a number by a string has no meaning and will be rejected by the compilers. The invalid operation may be detected when the program is compiled ("static" type checking) and will be rejected by the compiler with a compilation error message, or it may be detected when the program is run ("dynamic" type checking), resulting in a run-time <a href="/wiki/Exception_handling" title="Exception handling">exception</a>. Many languages allow a function called an exception handler to be written to handle this exception and, for example, always return "-1" as the result.</p>
<p>A special case of typed languages are the <i>single-type</i> languages. These are often scripting or markup languages, such as <a href="/wiki/REXX" title="REXX" class="mw-redirect">REXX</a> or <a href="/wiki/Standard_Generalized_Markup_Language" title="Standard Generalized Markup Language">SGML</a>, and have only one data type—most commonly character strings which are used for both symbolic and numeric data.</p>
<p>In contrast, an <i>untyped language</i>, such as most <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly languages</a>, allows any operation to be performed on any data, which are generally considered to be sequences of bits of various lengths.<sup id="cite_ref-typing_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-typing-47"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup> High-level languages which are untyped include <a href="/wiki/BCPL" title="BCPL">BCPL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tcl" title="Tcl">Tcl</a>, and some varieties of <a href="/wiki/Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a>.</p>
<p>In practice, while few languages are considered typed from the point of view of <a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">type theory</a> (verifying or rejecting <i>all</i> operations), most modern languages offer a degree of typing.<sup id="cite_ref-typing_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-typing-47"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup> Many production languages provide means to bypass or subvert the type system, trading type-safety for finer control over the program's execution (see <a href="/wiki/Type_conversion#Explicit_type_conversion" title="Type conversion">casting</a>).</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Static_versus_dynamic_typing">Static versus dynamic typing</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Static versus dynamic typing">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">static typing</a></i>, all expressions have their types determined prior to when the program is executed, typically at compile-time. For example, 1 and (2+2) are integer expressions; they cannot be passed to a function that expects a string, or stored in a variable that is defined to hold dates.<sup id="cite_ref-typing_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-typing-47"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Statically typed languages can be either <i><a href="/wiki/Manifest_typing" title="Manifest typing">manifestly typed</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Type_inference" title="Type inference">type-inferred</a></i>. In the first case, the programmer must explicitly write types at certain textual positions (for example, at variable <a href="/wiki/Declaration_(computer_science)" title="Declaration (computer science)" class="mw-redirect">declarations</a>). In the second case, the compiler <i>infers</i> the types of expressions and declarations based on context. Most mainstream statically typed languages, such as <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, <a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a> and <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, are manifestly typed. Complete type inference has traditionally been associated with less mainstream languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Haskell_(programming_language)" title="Haskell (programming language)">Haskell</a> and <a href="/wiki/ML_(programming_language)" title="ML (programming language)">ML</a>. However, many manifestly typed languages support partial type inference; for example, <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> and <a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a> both infer types in certain limited cases.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span>[</span>48<span>]</span></a></sup> Additionally, some programming languages allow for some types to be automatically converted to other types; for example, an int can be used where the program expects a float.</p>
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">Dynamic typing</a></i>, also called <i>latent typing</i>, determines the type-safety of operations at run time; in other words, types are associated with <i>run-time values</i> rather than <i>textual expressions</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-typing_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-typing-47"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup> As with type-inferred languages, dynamically typed languages do not require the programmer to write explicit type annotations on expressions. Among other things, this may permit a single variable to refer to values of different types at different points in the program execution. However, type <a href="/wiki/Software_bug" title="Software bug">errors</a> cannot be automatically detected until a piece of code is actually executed, potentially making <a href="/wiki/Debugging" title="Debugging">debugging</a> more difficult. <a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a> are dynamically typed.</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Weak_and_strong_typing">Weak and strong typing</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Weak and strong typing">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Weak_typing" title="Weak typing" class="mw-redirect">Weak typing</a></i> allows a value of one type to be treated as another, for example treating a <a href="/wiki/String_(computer_science)" title="String (computer science)">string</a> as a number.<sup id="cite_ref-typing_47-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-typing-47"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup> This can occasionally be useful, but it can also allow some kinds of program faults to go undetected at <a href="/wiki/Compile_time" title="Compile time">compile time</a> and even at <a href="/wiki/Run_time_(program_lifecycle_phase)" title="Run time (program lifecycle phase)">run time</a>.</p>
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Strongly_typed_programming_language" title="Strongly typed programming language" class="mw-redirect">Strong typing</a></i> prevents the above. An attempt to perform an operation on the wrong type of value raises an error.<sup id="cite_ref-typing_47-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-typing-47"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup> Strongly typed languages are often termed <i>type-safe</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Type_safety" title="Type safety">safe</a></i>.</p>
<p>An alternative definition for "weakly typed" refers to languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a> and <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>, which permit a large number of implicit type conversions. In JavaScript, for example, the expression <code>2 * x</code> implicitly converts <code>x</code> to a number, and this conversion succeeds even if <code>x</code> is <code>null</code>, <code>undefined</code>, an <code>Array</code>, or a string of letters. Such implicit conversions are often useful, but they can mask programming errors. <i>Strong</i> and <i>static</i> are now generally considered orthogonal concepts, but usage in the literature differs. Some use the term <i>strongly typed</i> to mean <i>strongly, statically typed</i>, or, even more confusingly, to mean simply <i>statically typed</i>. Thus <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> has been called both strongly typed and weakly, statically typed.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span>[</span>49<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span>[</span>50<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>It may seem odd to some professional programmers that C could be "weakly, statically typed". However, notice that the use of the generic pointer, the <b>void*</b> pointer, does allow for casting of pointers to other pointers without needing to do an explicit cast. This is extremely similar to somehow casting an array of bytes to any kind of datatype in C without using an explicit cast, such as <code>(int)</code> or <code>(char)</code>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Standard_library_and_run-time_system">Standard library and run-time system</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Standard library and run-time system">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Standard_library" title="Standard library">Standard library</a></div>
<p>Most programming languages have an associated core <a href="/wiki/Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">library</a> (sometimes known as the 'standard library', especially if it is included as part of the published language standard), which is conventionally made available by all implementations of the language. Core libraries typically include definitions for commonly used algorithms, data structures, and mechanisms for input and output.</p>
<p>The line between a language and its core library differs from language to language. In some cases, the language designers may treat the library as a separate entity from the language. However, a language's core library is often treated as part of the language by its users, and some language specifications even require that this library be made available in all implementations. Indeed, some languages are designed so that the meanings of certain syntactic constructs cannot even be described without referring to the core library. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, a string literal is defined as an instance of the <tt>java.lang.String</tt> class; similarly, in <a href="/wiki/Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Anonymous_function" title="Anonymous function">anonymous function</a> expression (a "block") constructs an instance of the library's <tt>BlockContext</tt> class. Conversely, <a href="/wiki/Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme (programming language)">Scheme</a> contains multiple coherent subsets that suffice to construct the rest of the language as library macros, and so the language designers do not even bother to say which portions of the language must be implemented as language constructs, and which must be implemented as parts of a library.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Design_and_implementation">Design and implementation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Design and implementation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Programming languages share properties with natural languages related to their purpose as vehicles for communication, having a syntactic form separate from its semantics, and showing <i>language families</i> of related languages branching one from another.<sup id="cite_ref-Fischer_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fischer-51"><span>[</span>51<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-levenez_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-levenez-52"><span>[</span>52<span>]</span></a></sup> But as artificial constructs, they also differ in fundamental ways from languages that have evolved through usage. A significant difference is that a programming language can be fully described and studied in its entirety, since it has a precise and finite definition.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></a></sup> By contrast, natural languages have changing meanings given by their users in different communities. While <a href="/wiki/Constructed_languages" title="Constructed languages" class="mw-redirect">constructed languages</a> are also artificial languages designed from the ground up with a specific purpose, they lack the precise and complete semantic definition that a programming language has.</p>
<p>Many programming languages have been designed from scratch, altered to meet new needs, and combined with other languages. Many have eventually fallen into disuse. Although there have been attempts to design one "universal" programming language that serves all purposes, all of them have failed to be generally accepted as filling this role.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span>[</span>54<span>]</span></a></sup> The need for diverse programming languages arises from the diversity of contexts in which languages are used:</p>
<ul>
<li>Programs range from tiny scripts written by individual hobbyists to huge systems written by hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Programmer" title="Programmer">programmers</a>.</li>
<li>Programmers range in expertise from novices who need simplicity above all else, to experts who may be comfortable with considerable complexity.</li>
<li>Programs must balance speed, size, and simplicity on systems ranging from <a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontrollers</a> to <a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">supercomputers</a>.</li>
<li>Programs may be written once and not change for generations, or they may undergo continual modification.</li>
<li>Programmers may simply differ in their tastes: they may be accustomed to discussing problems and expressing them in a particular language.</li>
</ul>
<p>One common trend in the development of programming languages has been to add more ability to solve problems using a higher level of <a href="/wiki/Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">abstraction</a>. The earliest programming languages were tied very closely to the underlying hardware of the computer. As new programming languages have developed, features have been added that let programmers express ideas that are more remote from simple translation into underlying hardware instructions. Because programmers are less tied to the complexity of the computer, their programs can do more computing with less effort from the programmer. This lets them write more functionality per time unit.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span>[</span>55<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p><span id="English-like_programming_languages"></span> <a href="/wiki/Natural_language_programming" title="Natural language programming">Natural language programming</a> has been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate. <a href="/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger W. Dijkstra</a> took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of meaningless constructs, and dismissed <a href="/wiki/Natural_language_programming" title="Natural language programming">natural language programming</a> as "foolish".<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span>[</span>56<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alan_Perlis" title="Alan Perlis">Alan Perlis</a> was similarly dismissive of the idea.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span>[</span>57<span>]</span></a></sup> Hybrid approaches have been taken in <a href="/wiki/Structured_English" title="Structured English">Structured English</a> and <a href="/wiki/SQL" title="SQL">SQL</a>.</p>
<p>A language's designers and users must construct a number of artifacts that govern and enable the practice of programming. The most important of these artifacts are the language <i>specification</i> and <i>implementation</i>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Specification">Specification</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Specification">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Programming_language_specification" title="Programming language specification">Programming language specification</a></div>
<p>The specification of a programming language is an artifact that the language <a href="/wiki/Programmer" title="Programmer">users</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language implementation">implementors</a> can use to agree upon whether a piece of <a href="/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a> is a valid <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">program</a> in that language, and if so what its behavior shall be.</p>
<p>A programming language specification can take several forms, including the following:</p>
<ul>
<li>An explicit definition of the syntax, static semantics, and execution semantics of the language. While syntax is commonly specified using a formal grammar, semantic definitions may be written in <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a> (e.g., as in the <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C language</a>), or a <a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_of_programming_languages" title="Formal semantics of programming languages" class="mw-redirect">formal semantics</a> (e.g., as in <a href="/wiki/Standard_ML" title="Standard ML">Standard ML</a><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span>[</span>58<span>]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme (programming language)">Scheme</a><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span>[</span>59<span>]</span></a></sup> specifications).</li>
<li>A description of the behavior of a <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">translator</a> for the language (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a> specifications). The syntax and semantics of the language have to be inferred from this description, which may be written in natural or a formal language.</li>
<li>A <a href="/wiki/Reference_implementation" title="Reference implementation"><i>reference</i> or <i>model</i> implementation</a>, sometimes <a href="/wiki/Meta-circular_evaluator" title="Meta-circular evaluator">written in the language being specified</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a> or <a href="/wiki/REXX" title="REXX" class="mw-redirect">ANSI REXX</a><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span>[</span>60<span>]</span></a></sup>). The syntax and semantics of the language are explicit in the behavior of the reference implementation.</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Implementation">Implementation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Implementation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language implementation">Programming language implementation</a></div>
<p>An <i>implementation</i> of a programming language provides a way to write programs in that language and execute them on one or more configurations of hardware and software. There are, broadly, two approaches to programming language implementation: <i><a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compilation</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpretation</a></i>. It is generally possible to implement a language using either technique.</p>
<p>The output of a <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a> may be executed by hardware or a program called an interpreter. In some implementations that make use of the interpreter approach there is no distinct boundary between compiling and interpreting. For instance, some implementations of <a href="/wiki/BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a> compile and then execute the source a line at a time.</p>
<p>Programs that are executed directly on the hardware usually run several orders of magnitude faster than those that are interpreted in software.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<p>One technique for improving the performance of interpreted programs is <a href="/wiki/Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">just-in-time compilation</a>. Here the <a href="/wiki/Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">virtual machine</a>, just before execution, translates the blocks of <a href="/wiki/Bytecode" title="Bytecode">bytecode</a> which are going to be used to machine code, for direct execution on the hardware.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Proprietary_languages">Proprietary languages</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Proprietary languages">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<td class="mbox-text"><span class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>. <span class="hide-when-compact">Please help improve this section by <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing_with_Wiki_Markup/1" title="Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <small><i>(July 2015)</i></small></span></td>
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<p>Although most of the most commonly used programming languages have fully open specifications and implementations, many programming languages exist only as proprietary programming languages with the implementation available only from a single vendor, which may claim that such a proprietary language is their intellectual property. Proprietary programming languages are commonly <a href="/wiki/Domain_specific_language" title="Domain specific language" class="mw-redirect">domain specific languages</a> or internal <a href="/wiki/Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">scripting languages</a> for a single product; some proprietary languages are used only internally within a vendor, while others are available to external users.</p>
<p>Some programming languages exist on the border between proprietary and open; for example, <a href="/wiki/Oracle_Corporation" title="Oracle Corporation">Oracle Corporation</a> asserts proprietary rights to some aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Java_programming_language" title="Java programming language" class="mw-redirect">Java programming language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>'s <a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a> programming language, which has open implementations of most parts of the system, also has <a href="/wiki/Common_Language_Runtime" title="Common Language Runtime">Common Language Runtime</a> (CLR) as a closed environment.</p>
<p>Many proprietary languages are widely used, in spite of their proprietary nature; examples include <a href="/wiki/MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a> and <a href="/wiki/VBScript" title="VBScript">VBScript</a>. Some languages may make the transition from closed to open; for example, <a href="/wiki/Erlang_(programming_language)" title="Erlang (programming language)">Erlang</a> was originally an Ericsson's internal programming language.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Usage">Usage</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Usage">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computing field.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span>[</span>61<span>]</span></a></sup> Software is commonly built with 5 programming languages or more.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span>[</span>62<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Programming languages differ from most other forms of human expression in that they require a greater degree of precision and completeness. When using a natural language to communicate with other people, human authors and speakers can be ambiguous and make small errors, and still expect their intent to be understood. However, figuratively speaking, computers "do exactly what they are told to do", and cannot "understand" what code the programmer intended to write. The combination of the language definition, a program, and the program's inputs must fully specify the external behavior that occurs when the program is executed, within the domain of control of that program. On the other hand, ideas about an algorithm can be communicated to humans without the precision required for execution by using <a href="/wiki/Pseudocode" title="Pseudocode">pseudocode</a>, which interleaves natural language with code written in a programming language.</p>
<p>A programming language provides a structured mechanism for defining pieces of data, and the operations or transformations that may be carried out automatically on that data. A <a href="/wiki/Programmer" title="Programmer">programmer</a> uses the <a href="/wiki/Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">abstractions</a> present in the language to represent the concepts involved in a computation. These concepts are represented as a collection of the simplest elements available (called <a href="/wiki/Language_primitive" title="Language primitive">primitives</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span>[</span>63<span>]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_Programming" title="Computer Programming" class="mw-redirect">Programming</a></i> is the process by which programmers combine these primitives to compose new programs, or adapt existing ones to new uses or a changing environment.</p>
<p>Programs for a computer might be <a href="/wiki/Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">executed</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Batch_processing" title="Batch processing">batch process</a> without human interaction, or a user might type <a href="/wiki/Command_(computing)" title="Command (computing)">commands</a> in an <a href="/wiki/Session_(computer_science)" title="Session (computer science)">interactive session</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a>. In this case the "commands" are simply programs, whose execution is chained together. When a language can run its commands through an interpreter (such as a <a href="/wiki/Unix_shell" title="Unix shell">Unix shell</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">command-line interface</a>), without compiling, it is called a <a href="/wiki/Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">scripting language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span>[</span>64<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Measuring_language_usage">Measuring language usage</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Measuring language usage">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Measuring_programming_language_popularity" title="Measuring programming language popularity">Measuring programming language popularity</a></div>
<p>It is difficult to determine which programming languages are most widely used, and what usage means varies by context. One language may occupy the greater number of programmer hours, a different one have more lines of code, and a third may consume the most CPU time. Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications. For example, <a href="/wiki/COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a> is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframes</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span>[</span>65<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span>[</span>66<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a> in scientific and engineering applications; <a href="/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)" title="Ada (programming language)">Ada</a> in aerospace, transportation, military, real-time and embedded applications; and <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> in embedded applications and operating systems. Other languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications.</p>
<p>Various methods of measuring language popularity, each subject to a different bias over what is measured, have been proposed:</p>
<ul>
<li>counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span>[</span>67<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li>the number of books sold that teach or describe the language<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span>[</span>68<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li>estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language&#160;–  which may underestimate languages not often found in public searches<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span>[</span>69<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li>counts of language references (i.e., to the name of the language) found using a web search engine.</li>
</ul>
<p>Combining and averaging information from various internet sites, langpop.com claims that in 2013 the ten most popular programming languages are (in descending order by overall popularity): <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, <a href="/wiki/PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a>, <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>, <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shell_script" title="Shell script">Shell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a>, <a href="/wiki/Objective-C" title="Objective-C">Objective-C</a> and <a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span>[</span>70<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Taxonomies">Taxonomies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Taxonomies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">For more details on this topic, see <a href="/wiki/Categorical_list_of_programming_languages" title="Categorical list of programming languages" class="mw-redirect">Categorical list of programming languages</a>.</div>
<p>There is no overarching classification scheme for programming languages. A given programming language does not usually have a single ancestor language. Languages commonly arise by combining the elements of several predecessor languages with new ideas in circulation at the time. Ideas that originate in one language will diffuse throughout a family of related languages, and then leap suddenly across familial gaps to appear in an entirely different family.</p>
<p>The task is further complicated by the fact that languages can be classified along multiple axes. For example, Java is both an object-oriented language (because it encourages object-oriented organization) and a concurrent language (because it contains built-in constructs for running multiple <a href="/wiki/Thread_(computer_science)" title="Thread (computer science)" class="mw-redirect">threads</a> in parallel). <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a> is an object-oriented <a href="/wiki/Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">scripting language</a>.</p>
<p>In broad strokes, programming languages divide into <i><a href="/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">programming paradigms</a></i> and a classification by <i>intended domain of use,</i> with <a href="/wiki/General-purpose_programming_language" title="General-purpose programming language">general-purpose programming languages</a> distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Domain-specific_programming_language" title="Domain-specific programming language" class="mw-redirect">domain-specific programming languages</a>. Traditionally, programming languages have been regarded as describing computation in terms of imperative sentences, i.e. issuing commands. These are generally called <a href="/wiki/Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">imperative programming</a> languages. A great deal of research in programming languages has been aimed at blurring the distinction between a program as a set of instructions and a program as an assertion about the desired answer, which is the main feature of <a href="/wiki/Declarative_programming" title="Declarative programming">declarative programming</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span>[</span>71<span>]</span></a></sup> More refined paradigms include <a href="/wiki/Procedural_programming" title="Procedural programming">procedural programming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented programming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional programming</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">logic programming</a>; some languages are hybrids of paradigms or multi-paradigmatic. An <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly language</a> is not so much a paradigm as a direct model of an underlying machine architecture. By purpose, programming languages might be considered general purpose, <a href="/wiki/System_programming_language" title="System programming language">system programming languages</a>, scripting languages, domain-specific languages, or concurrent/distributed languages (or a combination of these).<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span>[</span>72<span>]</span></a></sup> Some general purpose languages were designed largely with educational goals.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span>[</span>73<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>A programming language may also be classified by factors unrelated to programming paradigm. For instance, most programming languages use <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a> keywords, while <a href="/wiki/Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">a minority do not</a>. Other languages may be classified as being <a href="/wiki/Esoteric_programming_language" title="Esoteric programming language">deliberately esoteric</a> or not.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="div-col columns column-count column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_programming_languages_(basic_instructions)" title="Comparison of programming languages (basic instructions)">Comparison of programming languages (basic instructions)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_programming_languages" title="Comparison of programming languages">Comparison of programming languages</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">Computer programming</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_computer_science" title="Outline of computer science">Outline of computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Educational_programming_language" title="Educational programming language" class="mw-redirect">Educational programming language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Invariant_based_programming" title="Invariant based programming" class="mw-redirect">Invariant based programming</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_programming_languages" title="Lists of programming languages">Lists of programming languages</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_programming_language_researchers" title="List of programming language researchers">List of programming language researchers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Programming_languages_used_in_most_popular_websites" title="Programming languages used in most popular websites">Programming languages used in most popular websites</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Literate_programming" title="Literate programming">Literate programming</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_(computing)" title="Dialect (computing)">Dialect (computing)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Programming language theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudocode" title="Pseudocode">Pseudocode</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_programming_language" title="Scientific programming language">Scientific programming language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_software_engineering_topics" title="List of software engineering topics" class="mw-redirect">List of software engineering topics</a></li>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Koetsier, Teun (2001). <i>On the prehistory of programmable machines; musical automata, looms, calculators</i>. PERGAMON, Mechanisma and Machine Theory 36. pp.&#160;589–603.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.aufirst=Teun&amp;rft.aulast=Koetsier&amp;rft.btitle=On+the+prehistory+of+programmable+machines%3B+musical+automata%2C+looms%2C+calculators&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=589-603&amp;rft.pub=PERGAMON%2C+Mechanisma+and+Machine+Theory+36&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ettinger, James (2004) <i>Jacquard's Web</i>, Oxford University Press</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Aaby_2004-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aaby_2004_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aaby_2004_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aaby_2004_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Aaby, Anthony (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.emu.edu.tr/aelci/Courses/D-318/D-318-Files/plbook/intro.htm"><i>Introduction to Programming Languages</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.aufirst=Anthony&amp;rft.aulast=Aaby&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Programming+Languages&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.emu.edu.tr%2Faelci%2FCourses%2FD-318%2FD-318-Files%2Fplbook%2Fintro.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In mathematical terms, this means the programming language is <a href="/wiki/Turing_completeness" title="Turing completeness">Turing-complete</a> <cite class="citation book">MacLennan, Bruce J. (1987). <i>Principles of Programming Languages</i>. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;1. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-511306-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-511306-3">0-19-511306-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.aufirst=Bruce+J.&amp;rft.aulast=MacLennan&amp;rft.btitle=Principles+of+Programming+Languages&amp;rft.date=1987&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-511306-3&amp;rft.pages=1&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-sigplan-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sigplan_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">ACM</a> SIGPLAN (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acm.org/sigs/sigplan/sigplan_bylaws.htm">"Bylaws of the Special Interest Group on Programming Languages of the Association for Computing Machinery"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.au=ACM+SIGPLAN&amp;rft.btitle=Bylaws+of+the+Special+Interest+Group+on+Programming+Languages+of+the+Association+for+Computing+Machinery&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.acm.org%2Fsigs%2Fsigplan%2Fsigplan_bylaws.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>, <i>The scope of SIGPLAN is the theory, design, implementation, description, and application of computer programming languages - languages that permit the specification of a variety of different computations, thereby providing the user with significant control (immediate or delayed) over the computer's operation.</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-robots-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-robots_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Dean, Tom (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.brown.edu/people/tld/courses/cs148/02/programming.html">"Programming Robots"</a>. <i>Building Intelligent Robots</i>. Brown University Department of Computer Science<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.atitle=Programming+Robots&amp;rft.aufirst=Tom&amp;rft.aulast=Dean&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.brown.edu%2Fpeople%2Ftld%2Fcourses%2Fcs148%2F02%2Fprogramming.html&amp;rft.jtitle=Building+Intelligent+Robots&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-nara2-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nara2_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Narasimahan, Programming Languages and Computers: A Unified Metatheory, pp. 189--247 in Franz Alt, Morris Rubinoff (eds.) Advances in computers, Volume 8, Academic Press, 1994, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0120121085" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-12-012108-5</a>, p.193&#160;: "a complete specification of a programming language must, by definition, include a specification of a processor--idealized, if you will--for that language." [the source cites many references to support this statement]</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Ben Ari, Mordechai (1996). <i>Understanding Programming Languages</i>. John Wiley and Sons. <q>Programs and languages can be deﬁned as purely formal mathematical objects. However, more people are interested in programs than in other mathematical objects such as groups, precisely because it is possible to use the program—the sequence of symbols—to control the execution of a computer. While we highly recommend the study of the theory of programming, this text will generally limit itself to the study of programs as they are executed on a computer.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.aufirst=Mordechai&amp;rft.aulast=Ben+Ari&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+Programming+Languages&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David A. Schmidt, <i>The structure of typed programming languages</i>, MIT Press, 1994, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0262193493" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-262-19349-3</a>, p. 32</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Pierce, Benjamin (2002). <i>Types and Programming Languages</i>. MIT Press. p.&#160;339. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-16209-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-16209-1">0-262-16209-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.aufirst=Benjamin&amp;rft.aulast=Pierce&amp;rft.btitle=Types+and+Programming+Languages&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-262-16209-1&amp;rft.pages=339&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Digital Equipment Corporation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~shadow/sql/sql1992.txt">"Information Technology - Database Language SQL (Proposed revised text of DIS 9075)"</a>. <i>ISO/IEC 9075:1992, Database Language SQL</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.atitle=Information+Technology+-+Database+Language+SQL+%28Proposed+revised+text+of+DIS+9075%29&amp;rft.au=Digital+Equipment+Corporation&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu%2F~shadow%2Fsql%2Fsql1992.txt&amp;rft.jtitle=ISO%2FIEC+9075%3A1992%2C+Database+Language+SQL&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">The Charity Development Group (December 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pll.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/charity1/www/home.html">"The CHARITY Home Page"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.au=The+Charity+Development+Group&amp;rft.btitle=The+CHARITY+Home+Page&amp;rft.date=1996-12&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpll.cpsc.ucalgary.ca%2Fcharity1%2Fwww%2Fhome.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>, <i>Charity is a categorical programming language...</i>, <i>All Charity computations terminate.</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.w3.org/XML/1999/XML-in-10-points.html">XML in 10 points</a> <a href="/wiki/W3C" title="W3C" class="mw-redirect">W3C</a>, 1999, <i>XML is not a programming language.</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Powell, Thomas (2003). <i>HTML &amp; XHTML: the complete reference</i>. McGraw-Hill. p.&#160;25. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-222942-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-222942-X">0-07-222942-X</a>. <q><i>HTML is not a programming language.</i></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas&amp;rft.aulast=Powell&amp;rft.btitle=HTML+%26+XHTML%3A+the+complete+reference&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-07-222942-X&amp;rft.pages=25&amp;rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Dykes, Lucinda; Tittel, Ed (2005). <i>XML For Dummies, 4th Edition</i>. Wiley. p.&#160;20. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7645-8845-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7645-8845-1">0-7645-8845-1</a>. <q><i>...it's a markup language, not a programming language.</i></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.aufirst=Lucinda&amp;rft.aulast=Dykes&amp;rft.au=Tittel%2C+Ed&amp;rft.btitle=XML+For+Dummies%2C+4th+Edition&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-7645-8845-1&amp;rft.pages=20&amp;rft.pub=Wiley&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/x-xslt/">"What kind of language is XSLT?"</a>. IBM.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.btitle=What+kind+of+language+is+XSLT%3F&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fdeveloperworks%2Flibrary%2Fx-xslt%2F&amp;rft.pub=IBM.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms767587(VS.85).aspx">"XSLT is a Programming Language"</a>. Msdn.microsoft.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.btitle=XSLT+is+a+Programming+Language&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmsdn.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Flibrary%2Fms767587%28VS.85%29.aspx&amp;rft.pub=Msdn.microsoft.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Scott, Michael (2006). <i>Programming Language Pragmatics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Kaufmann" title="Morgan Kaufmann" class="mw-redirect">Morgan Kaufmann</a>. p.&#160;802. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-633951-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-633951-1">0-12-633951-1</a>. <q><i>XSLT, though highly specialized to the transformation of XML, is a Turing-complete programming language.</i></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft.aulast=Scott&amp;rft.btitle=Programming+Language+Pragmatics&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-12-633951-1&amp;rft.pages=802&amp;rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://tobi.oetiker.ch/lshort/lshort.pdf">http://tobi.oetiker.ch/lshort/lshort.pdf</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Syropoulos, Apostolos; Antonis Tsolomitis; Nick Sofroniou (2003). <i>Digital typography using LaTeX</i>. Springer-Verlag. p.&#160;213. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-95217-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-95217-9">0-387-95217-9</a>. <q><i>TeX is not only an excellent typesetting engine but also a real programming language.</i></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.au=Antonis+Tsolomitis&amp;rft.aufirst=Apostolos&amp;rft.aulast=Syropoulos&amp;rft.au=Nick+Sofroniou&amp;rft.btitle=Digital+typography+using+LaTeX&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-387-95217-9&amp;rft.pages=213&amp;rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert A. Edmunds, The Prentice-Hall standard glossary of computer terminology, Prentice-Hall, 1985, p. 91</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pascal Lando, Anne Lapujade, Gilles Kassel, and Frédéric Fürst, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.mis.u-picardie.fr/~site-ic/site/IMG/pdf/ICSOFT2007_final.pdf">Towards a General Ontology of Computer Programs</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/conf/icsoft/icsoft2007-1.html">ICSOFT 2007</a>, pp. 163-170</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S.K. Bajpai, <i>Introduction To Computers And C Programming</i>, New Age International, 2007, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/812241379X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 81-224-1379-X</a>, p. 346</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Narasimahan, Programming Languages and Computers: A Unified Metatheory, pp. 189--247 in Franz Alt, Morris Rubinoff (eds.) Advances in computers, Volume 8, Academic Press, 1994, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0120121085" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-12-012108-5</a>, p.215: "[...] the model [...] for computer languages differs from that [...] for programming languages in only two respects. In a computer language, there are only finitely many names--or registers--which can assume only finitely many values--or states--and these states are not further distinguished in terms of any other attributes. [author's footnote:] This may sound like a truism but its implications are far reaching. For example, it would imply that any model for programming languages, by fixing certain of its parameters or features, should be reducible in a natural way to a model for computer languages."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John C. Reynolds, <i>Some thoughts on teaching programming and programming languages</i>, <a href="/wiki/SIGPLAN" title="SIGPLAN">SIGPLAN</a> Notices, Volume 43, Issue 11, November 2008, p.109</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas" title="Raúl Rojas">Rojas, Raúl</a>, et al. (2000). "Plankalkül: The First High-Level Programming Language and its Implementation". Institut für Informatik, Freie Universität Berlin, Technical Report B-3/2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zib.de/zuse/Inhalt/Programme/Plankalkuel/Plankalkuel-Report/Plankalkuel-Report.htm">(full text)</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Sebesta-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sebesta_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sebesta, W.S Concepts of Programming languages. 2006;M6 14:18 pp.44. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0321330250" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-321-33025-0</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Knuth, Donald E.; Pardo, Luis Trabb. "Early development of programming languages". <i>Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology</i> (Marcel Dekker) <b>7</b>: 419–493.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.atitle=Early+development+of+programming+languages&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+E.&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.au=Pardo%2C+Luis+Trabb&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+Computer+Science+and+Technology&amp;rft.pages=419-493&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=7" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Peter J. Bentley (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kpYX_lNI0VMC"><i>Digitized: The Science of Computers and how it Shapes Our World</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;87.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.au=Peter+J.+Bentley&amp;rft.btitle=Digitized%3A+The+Science+of+Computers+and+how+it+Shapes+Our+World&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.co.uk%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkpYX_lNI0VMC&amp;rft.pages=87&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17704662/">"Fortran creator John Backus dies - Tech and gadgets- msnbc.com"</a>. MSNBC. 2007-03-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-04-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.btitle=Fortran+creator+John+Backus+dies+-+Tech+and+gadgets-+msnbc.com&amp;rft.date=2007-03-20&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.msnbc.msn.com%2Fid%2F17704662%2F&amp;rft.pub=MSNBC&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.math.grin.edu/~rebelsky/Courses/CS302/99S/Outlines/outline.02.html">"CSC-302 99S&#160;: Class 02: A Brief History of Programming Languages"</a>. Math.grin.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-04-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.btitle=CSC-302+99S+%3A+Class+02%3A+A+Brief+History+of+Programming+Languages&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.math.grin.edu%2F~rebelsky%2FCourses%2FCS302%2F99S%2FOutlines%2Foutline.02.html&amp;rft.pub=Math.grin.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-hpc-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hpc_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Eugene Loh (18 June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://queue.acm.org/detail.cfm?id=1820518">"The Ideal HPC Programming Language"</a>. <i>Queue</i> (Association of Computing Machines) <b>8</b> (6).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.atitle=The+Ideal+HPC+Programming+Language&amp;rft.au=Eugene+Loh&amp;rft.date=2010-06-18&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fqueue.acm.org%2Fdetail.cfm%3Fid%3D1820518&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.jtitle=Queue&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=8" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.netlib.org/benchmark/hpl">"HPL - A Portable Implementation of the High-Performance Linpack Benchmark for Distributed-Memory Computers"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-02-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.btitle=HPL+-+A+Portable+Implementation+of+the+High-Performance+Linpack+Benchmark+for+Distributed-Memory+Computers&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.netlib.org%2Fbenchmark%2Fhpl&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hopper (1978) p.&#160;16.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sammet (1969) p.&#160;316</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sammet (1978) p.&#160;204.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard L. Wexelblat: <i>History of Programming Languages</i>, Academic Press, 1981, chapter XIV.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">François Labelle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~flab/languages.html">"Programming Language Usage Graph"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/SourceForge" title="SourceForge">SourceForge</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.atitle=Programming+Language+Usage+Graph&amp;rft.au=Fran%C3%A7ois+Labelle&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.berkeley.edu%2F~flab%2Flanguages.html&amp;rft.jtitle=SourceForge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>. This comparison analyzes trends in number of projects hosted by a popular community programming repository. During most years of the comparison, C leads by a considerable margin; in 2006, Java overtakes C, but the combination of C/C++ still leads considerably.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Hayes, Brian (2006). "The Semicolon Wars". <i>American Scientist</i> <b>94</b> (4): 299–303. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1511%2F2006.60.299">10.1511/2006.60.299</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.atitle=The+Semicolon+Wars&amp;rft.aufirst=Brian&amp;rft.aulast=Hayes&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1511%2F2006.60.299&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.jtitle=American+Scientist&amp;rft.pages=299-303&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=94" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/Edsger_Dijkstra" title="Edsger Dijkstra" class="mw-redirect">Dijkstra, Edsger W.</a> (March 1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ewd02xx/EWD215.PDF">"Go To Statement Considered Harmful"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Communications of the ACM</i> <b>11</b> (3): 147–148. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F362929.362947">10.1145/362929.362947</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.atitle=Go+To+Statement+Considered+Harmful&amp;rft.aufirst=Edsger+W.&amp;rft.aulast=Dijkstra&amp;rft.date=1968-03&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.utexas.edu%2Fusers%2FEWD%2Fewd02xx%2FEWD215.PDF&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F362929.362947&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&amp;rft.pages=147-148&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=11" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tetsuro Fujise, Takashi Chikayama, Kazuaki Rokusawa, Akihiko Nakase (December 1994). "KLIC: A Portable Implementation of KL1" <i>Proc. of FGCS '94, ICOT</i> Tokyo, December 1994. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.icot.or.jp/ARCHIVE/HomePage-E.html">http://www.icot.or.jp/ARCHIVE/HomePage-E.html</a> KLIC is a portable implementation of a concurrent logic programming language <a href="/wiki/KL1" title="KL1">KL1</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Jim Bender (15 March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://readscheme.org/modules/">"Mini-Bibliography on Modules for Functional Programming Languages"</a>. <i>ReadScheme.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.atitle=Mini-Bibliography+on+Modules+for+Functional+Programming+Languages&amp;rft.au=Jim+Bender&amp;rft.date=2004-03-15&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freadscheme.org%2Fmodules%2F&amp;rft.jtitle=ReadScheme.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sipser" title="Michael Sipser">Michael Sipser</a> (1996). <i><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_the_Theory_of_Computation" title="Introduction to the Theory of Computation">Introduction to the Theory of Computation</a></i>. PWS Publishing. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-94728-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-534-94728-X">0-534-94728-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.au=Michael+Sipser&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Theory+of+Computation&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-534-94728-X&amp;rft.pub=PWS+Publishing&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> Section 2.2: Pushdown Automata, pp.101–114.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeffrey Kegler, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jeffreykegler.com/Home/perl-and-undecidability">Perl and Undecidability</a>", <i>The Perl Review</i>. Papers 2 and 3 prove, using respectively <a href="/wiki/Rice%27s_theorem" title="Rice's theorem">Rice's theorem</a> and direct reduction to the <a href="/wiki/Halting_problem" title="Halting problem">halting problem</a>, that the parsing of Perl programs is in general undecidable.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marty Hall, 1995, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apl.jhu.edu/~hall/Lisp-Notes/Macros.html">Lecture Notes: Macros</a>, <a href="/wiki/PostScript" title="PostScript">PostScript</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apl.jhu.edu/~hall/Lisp-Notes/Macros.ps">version</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Lee Scott, <i>Programming language pragmatics</i>, Edition 2, Morgan Kaufmann, 2006, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0126339511" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-12-633951-1</a>, p. 18–19</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-typing-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-typing_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-typing_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-typing_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-typing_47-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-typing_47-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-typing_47-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-typing_47-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Andrew Cooke. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acooke.org/comp-lang.html">"Introduction To Computer Languages"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.au=Andrew+Cooke&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+To+Computer+Languages&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.acooke.org%2Fcomp-lang.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Specifically, instantiations of <a href="/wiki/Generic_programming" title="Generic programming">generic</a> types are inferred for certain expression forms. Type inference in Generic Java—the research language that provided the basis for Java 1.5's bounded <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_in_object-oriented_programming" title="Polymorphism in object-oriented programming" class="mw-redirect">parametric polymorphism</a> extensions—is discussed in two informal manuscripts from the Types mailing list: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~sweirich/types/archive/1999-2003/msg00849.html">Generic Java type inference is unsound</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alan_Jeffrey" title="Alan Jeffrey">Alan Jeffrey</a>, 17 December 2001) and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~sweirich/types/archive/1999-2003/msg00921.html">Sound Generic Java type inference</a> (<a href="/wiki/Martin_Odersky" title="Martin Odersky">Martin Odersky</a>, 15 January 2002). C#'s type system is similar to Java's, and uses a similar partial type inference scheme.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.schemers.org/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-4.html">"Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme"</a>. 20 February 1998<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.btitle=Revised+Report+on+the+Algorithmic+Language+Scheme&amp;rft.date=1998-02-20&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.schemers.org%2FDocuments%2FStandards%2FR5RS%2FHTML%2Fr5rs-Z-H-4.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/Luca_Cardelli" title="Luca Cardelli">Luca Cardelli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Wegner" title="Peter Wegner">Peter Wegner</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cardelli85understanding.html">"On Understanding Types, Data Abstraction, and Polymorphism"</a>. <i>Manuscript (1985)</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.atitle=On+Understanding+Types%2C+Data+Abstraction%2C+and+Polymorphism&amp;rft.au=Luca+Cardelli+and+Peter+Wegner&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fciteseer.ist.psu.edu%2Fcardelli85understanding.html&amp;rft.jtitle=Manuscript+%281985%29&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Fischer-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fischer_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven R. Fischer, <i>A history of language</i>, Reaktion Books, 2003, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/186189080X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 1-86189-080-X</a>, p. 205</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-levenez-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-levenez_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Éric Lévénez (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.levenez.com/lang/">"Computer Languages History"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.au=%C3%89ric+L%C3%A9v%C3%A9nez&amp;rft.btitle=Computer+Languages+History&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.levenez.com%2Flang%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Jing Huang. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.cornell.edu/info/Projects/Nuprl/cs611/fall94notes/cn2/subsection3_1_3.html">"Artificial Language vs. Natural Language"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.au=Jing+Huang&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Language+vs.+Natural+Language&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.cornell.edu%2Finfo%2FProjects%2FNuprl%2Fcs611%2Ffall94notes%2Fcn2%2Fsubsection3_1_3.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">IBM in first publishing PL/I, for example, rather ambitiously titled its manual <i>The universal programming language PL/I</i> (IBM Library; 1966). The title reflected IBM's goals for unlimited subsetting capability: <i>PL/I is designed in such a way that one can isolate subsets from it satisfying the requirements of particular applications.</i> (<cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=PL/I&amp;oldid=19175">"PL/I"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of Mathematics</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.atitle=PL%2FI&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopediaofmath.org%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DPL%2FI%26oldid%3D19175&amp;rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+Mathematics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>). <a href="/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)" title="Ada (programming language)">Ada</a> and <a href="/wiki/UNCOL" title="UNCOL">UNCOL</a> had similar early goals.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederick P. Brooks, Jr.: <i>The Mythical Man-Month,</i> Addison-Wesley, 1982, pp. 93-94</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dijkstra, Edsger W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD06xx/EWD667.html">On the foolishness of "natural language programming."</a> EWD667.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Perlis, Alan (September 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-pu.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de/users/klaeren/epigrams.html">"Epigrams on Programming"</a>. <i>SIGPLAN Notices Vol. 17, No. 9</i>. pp.&#160;7–13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.atitle=Epigrams+on+Programming&amp;rft.aufirst=Alan&amp;rft.aulast=Perlis&amp;rft.date=1982-09&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pu.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de%2Fusers%2Fklaeren%2Fepigrams.html&amp;rft.jtitle=SIGPLAN+Notices+Vol.+17%2C+No.+9&amp;rft.pages=7-13&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Robin_Milner" title="Robin Milner">Milner, R.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mads_Tofte" title="Mads Tofte">M. Tofte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Harper_(computer_scientist)" title="Robert Harper (computer scientist)">R. Harper</a> and D. MacQueen. (1997). <i>The Definition of Standard ML (Revised)</i>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-63181-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-63181-4">0-262-63181-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.aufirst=R.&amp;rft.aulast=Milner&amp;rft.btitle=The+Definition+of+Standard+ML+%28Revised%29&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-262-63181-4&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> <span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">Cite uses deprecated parameter <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|coauthors=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#deprecated_params" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Kelsey, Richard; William Clinger; Jonathan Rees (February 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.schemers.org/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-10.html#%_sec_7.2">"Section 7.2 Formal semantics"</a>. <i>Revised<sup>5</sup> Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.atitle=Section+7.2+Formal+semantics&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft.au=Jonathan+Rees&amp;rft.aulast=Kelsey&amp;rft.au=William+Clinger&amp;rft.date=1998-02&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.schemers.org%2FDocuments%2FStandards%2FR5RS%2FHTML%2Fr5rs-Z-H-10.html%23%25_sec_7.2&amp;rft.jtitle=Revised%3Csup%3E5%3C%2Fsup%3E+Report+on+the+Algorithmic+Language+Scheme&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute" title="American National Standards Institute">ANSI</a> — Programming Language Rexx, X3-274.1996</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/">"HOPL: an interactive Roster of Programming Languages"</a>. Australia: <a href="/wiki/Murdoch_University" title="Murdoch University">Murdoch University</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2009</span>. <q>This site lists 8512 languages.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.btitle=HOPL%3A+an+interactive+Roster+of+Programming+Languages&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhopl.murdoch.edu.au%2F&amp;rft.place=Australia&amp;rft.pub=Murdoch+University&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Mayer, Philip; Bauer, Alexander (1 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/2745802.2745805">"An Empirical Analysis of the Utilization of Multiple Programming Languages in Open Source Projects"</a>. EASE '15. New York, NY, USA: ACM: 4:1–4:10. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F2745802.2745805">10.1145/2745802.2745805</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4503-3350-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4503-3350-4">978-1-4503-3350-4</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2015</span>. <q>Results: We found (a) a mean number of 5 languages per project with a clearly dominant main general-purpose language and 5 often-used DSL types, (b) a significant influence of the size, number of commits, and the main language on the number of languages as well as no significant influence of age and number of contributors, and (c) three language ecosystems grouped around XML, Shell/Make, and HTML/CSS. Conclusions: Multi-language programming seems to be common in open-source projects and is a factor which must be dealt with in tooling and when assessing development and maintenance of such software systems.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.atitle=An+Empirical+Analysis+of+the+Utilization+of+Multiple+Programming+Languages+in+Open+Source+Projects&amp;rft.au=Bauer%2C+Alexander&amp;rft.aufirst=Philip&amp;rft.aulast=Mayer&amp;rft.date=2015-01-01&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoi.acm.org%2F10.1145%2F2745802.2745805&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2745802.2745805&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4503-3350-4&amp;rft.pages=4%3A1-4%3A10&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Abelson, Sussman, and Sussman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/full-text/book/book-Z-H-10.html">"Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.au=Abelson%2C+Sussman%2C+and+Sussman&amp;rft.btitle=Structure+and+Interpretation+of+Computer+Programs&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmitpress.mit.edu%2Fsicp%2Ffull-text%2Fbook%2Fbook-Z-H-10.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Brown Vicki (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mactech.com/articles/mactech/Vol.15/15.09/ScriptingLanguages/index.html">"Scripting Languages"</a>. <i>mactech.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 17,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.atitle=Scripting+Languages&amp;rft.au=Brown+Vicki&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mactech.com%2Farticles%2Fmactech%2FVol.15%2F15.09%2FScriptingLanguages%2Findex.html&amp;rft.jtitle=mactech.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Georgina Swan (2009-09-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerworld.com.au/article/319269/cobol_turns_50/">"COBOL turns 50"</a>. computerworld.com.au<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-10-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.au=Georgina+Swan&amp;rft.btitle=COBOL+turns+50&amp;rft.date=2009-09-21&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com.au%2Farticle%2F319269%2Fcobol_turns_50%2F&amp;rft.pub=computerworld.com.au&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Ed Airey (2012-05-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.developer.com/lang/other/7-myths-of-cobol-debunked.html">"7 Myths of COBOL Debunked"</a>. developer.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-10-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.au=Ed+Airey&amp;rft.btitle=7+Myths+of+COBOL+Debunked&amp;rft.date=2012-05-03&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.developer.com%2Flang%2Fother%2F7-myths-of-cobol-debunked.html&amp;rft.pub=developer.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Nicholas Enticknap. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerweekly.com/Articles/2007/09/11/226631/sslcomputer-weekly-it-salary-survey-finance-boom-drives-it-job.htm">"SSL/Computer Weekly IT salary survey: finance boom drives IT job growth"</a>. Computerweekly.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-06-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.au=Nicholas+Enticknap&amp;rft.btitle=SSL%2FComputer+Weekly+IT+salary+survey%3A+finance+boom+drives+IT+job+growth&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerweekly.com%2FArticles%2F2007%2F09%2F11%2F226631%2Fsslcomputer-weekly-it-salary-survey-finance-boom-drives-it-job.htm&amp;rft.pub=Computerweekly.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://radar.oreilly.com/archives/2006/08/programming_language_trends_1.html">"Counting programming languages by book sales"</a>. Radar.oreilly.com. 2 August 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.btitle=Counting+programming+languages+by+book+sales&amp;rft.date=2006-08-02&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fradar.oreilly.com%2Farchives%2F2006%2F08%2Fprogramming_language_trends_1.html&amp;rft.pub=Radar.oreilly.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bieman, J.M.; Murdock, V., Finding code on the World Wide Web: a preliminary investigation, Proceedings First IEEE International Workshop on Source Code Analysis and Manipulation, 2001</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.langpop.com/">"Programming Language Popularity"</a>. langpop.com. 2013-10-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-01-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.btitle=Programming+Language+Popularity&amp;rft.date=2013-10-25&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.langpop.com%2F&amp;rft.pub=langpop.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carl A. Gunter, <i>Semantics of Programming Languages: Structures and Techniques</i>, MIT Press, 1992, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0262570955" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-262-57095-5</a>, p. 1</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tunes.org/wiki/programming_20languages.html">"TUNES: Programming Languages"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.btitle=TUNES%3A+Programming+Languages&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftunes.org%2Fwiki%2Fprogramming_20languages.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/Niklaus_Wirth" title="Niklaus Wirth">Wirth, Niklaus</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=155378">"Recollections about the development of Pascal"</a>. <i>Proc. 2nd <a href="/wiki/SIGPLAN" title="SIGPLAN">ACM SIGPLAN</a> conference on history of programming languages</i>: 333–342. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F154766.155378">10.1145/154766.155378</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89791-570-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89791-570-4">0-89791-570-4</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.atitle=Recollections+about+the+development+of+Pascal&amp;rft.aufirst=Niklaus&amp;rft.aulast=Wirth&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.acm.org%2Fcitation.cfm%3Fid%3D155378&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F154766.155378&amp;rft.isbn=0-89791-570-4&amp;rft.jtitle=Proc.+2nd+ACM+SIGPLAN+conference+on+history+of+programming+languages&amp;rft.pages=333-342&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_programming_languages#Further_reading" title="History of programming languages">History of programming languages § Further reading</a></div>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
<ul>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Harold_Abelson" title="Harold Abelson" class="mw-redirect">Abelson, Harold</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Jay_Sussman" title="Gerald Jay Sussman">Sussman, Gerald Jay</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/full-text/book/book-Z-H-4.html"><i>Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs</i></a> (2nd ed.). MIT Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language&amp;rft.aufirst=Harold&amp;rft.aulast=Abelson&amp;rft.au=Sussman%2C+Gerald+Jay&amp;rft.btitle=Structure+and+Interpretation+of+Computer+Programs&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmitpress.mit.edu%2Fsicp%2Ffull-text%2Fbook%2Fbook-Z-H-4.html&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Finkel" title="Raphael Finkel">Raphael Finkel</a>: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nondot.org/sabre/Mirrored/AdvProgLangDesign/">Advanced Programming Language Design</a></i>, Addison Wesley 1995.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_P._Friedman" title="Daniel P. Friedman">Daniel P. Friedman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mitchell_Wand" title="Mitchell Wand">Mitchell Wand</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_T._Haynes&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Christopher T. Haynes (page does not exist)">Christopher T. Haynes</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Essentials_of_Programming_Languages" title="Essentials of Programming Languages">Essentials of Programming Languages</a></i>, The MIT Press 2001.</li>
<li>Maurizio Gabbrielli and Simone Martini: "Programming Languages: Principles and Paradigms", Springer, 2010.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Gelernter" title="David Gelernter">David Gelernter</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Suresh_Jagannathan&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Suresh Jagannathan (page does not exist)">Suresh Jagannathan</a>: <i>Programming Linguistics</i>, <a href="/wiki/The_MIT_Press" title="The MIT Press" class="mw-redirect">The MIT Press</a> 1990.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ellis_Horowitz" title="Ellis Horowitz">Ellis Horowitz</a> (ed.): <i>Programming Languages, a Grand Tour</i> (3rd ed.), 1987.</li>
<li>Ellis Horowitz: <i>Fundamentals of Programming Languages</i>, 1989.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shriram_Krishnamurthi" title="Shriram Krishnamurthi">Shriram Krishnamurthi</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Programming_Languages:_Application_and_Interpretation" title="Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation">Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.brown.edu/~sk/Publications/Books/ProgLangs/">online publication</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bruce_J._MacLennan&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Bruce J. MacLennan (page does not exist)">Bruce J. MacLennan</a>: <i>Principles of Programming Languages: Design, Evaluation, and Implementation</i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> 1999.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Mitchell" title="John C. Mitchell">John C. Mitchell</a>: <i>Concepts in Programming Languages</i>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a> 2002.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_C._Pierce" title="Benjamin C. Pierce">Benjamin C. Pierce</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Types_and_Programming_Languages" title="Types and Programming Languages">Types and Programming Languages</a></i>, The MIT Press 2002.</li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Terrence_W._Pratt&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Terrence W. Pratt (page does not exist)">Terrence W. Pratt</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marvin_V._Zelkowitz&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Marvin V. Zelkowitz (page does not exist)">Marvin V. Zelkowitz</a>: <i>Programming Languages: Design and Implementation</i> (4th ed.), Prentice Hall 2000.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Salus" title="Peter H. Salus">Peter H. Salus</a>. <i>Handbook of Programming Languages</i> (4 vols.). Macmillan 1998.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Sethi" title="Ravi Sethi">Ravi Sethi</a>: <i>Programming Languages: Concepts and Constructs</i>, 2nd ed., <a href="/wiki/Addison-Wesley" title="Addison-Wesley">Addison-Wesley</a> 1996.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_L._Scott" title="Michael L. Scott">Michael L. Scott</a>: <i>Programming Language Pragmatics</i>, <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Kaufmann_Publishers" title="Morgan Kaufmann Publishers">Morgan Kaufmann Publishers</a> 2005.</li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_W._Sebesta&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert W. Sebesta (page does not exist)">Robert W. Sebesta</a>: <i>Concepts of Programming Languages</i>, 9th ed., Addison Wesley 2009.</li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franklyn_Turbak&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Franklyn Turbak (page does not exist)">Franklyn Turbak</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Gifford&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="David Gifford (page does not exist)">David Gifford</a> with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mark_Sheldon&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Mark Sheldon (page does not exist)">Mark Sheldon</a>: <i>Design Concepts in Programming Languages</i>, The MIT Press 2009.</li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Van_Roy&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Van Roy (page does not exist)">Peter Van Roy</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Seif_Haridi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Seif Haridi (page does not exist)">Seif Haridi</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Concepts,_Techniques,_and_Models_of_Computer_Programming" title="Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming">Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming</a></i>, The MIT Press 2004.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_A._Watt" title="David A. Watt" class="mw-redirect">David A. Watt</a>. <i>Programming Language Concepts and Paradigms</i>. Prentice Hall 1990.</li>
<li>David A. Watt and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Muffy_Thomas&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Muffy Thomas (page does not exist)">Muffy Thomas</a>. <i>Programming Language Syntax and Semantics</i>. Prentice Hall 1991.</li>
<li>David A. Watt. <i>Programming Language Processors</i>. Prentice Hall 1993.</li>
<li>David A. Watt. <i>Programming Language Design Concepts</i>. John Wiley &amp; Sons 2004.</li>
</ul>
</div>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Array_programming" title="Array programming">Array</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aspect-oriented_programming" title="Aspect-oriented programming">Aspect-oriented</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Class-based_programming" title="Class-based programming">Class-based</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Dataflow_programming" title="Dataflow programming">Dataflow</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Declarative_programming" title="Declarative programming">Declarative</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_programming_language" title="Dynamic programming language">Dynamic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_programming_language" title="Esoteric programming language">Esoteric</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Extensible_programming" title="Extensible programming">Extensible</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">Imperative</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">Macro</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">Metaprogramming</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Multi-paradigm_programming_language" title="Multi-paradigm programming language" class="mw-redirect">Multi-paradigm</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Object-based_language" title="Object-based language">Object-based</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object-oriented</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pipeline_programming" title="Pipeline programming" class="mw-redirect">Pipeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_programming" title="Procedural programming">Procedural</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based programming">Prototype-based</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reflection_(computer_programming)" title="Reflection (computer programming)">Reflective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rule-based_system" title="Rule-based system">Rule-based</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">Scripting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Synchronous_programming_language" title="Synchronous programming language">Synchronous</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Templating_language" title="Templating language" class="mw-redirect">Templating</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Compiled_language" title="Compiled language">Compiled</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interpreted_language" title="Interpreted language">Interpreted</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">Machine</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Low-level_programming_language" title="Low-level programming language">Low-level</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">High-level</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/First-generation_programming_language" title="First-generation programming language">First generation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_programming_language" title="Second-generation programming language">Second generation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Third-generation_programming_language" title="Third-generation programming language">Third generation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-generation_programming_language" title="Fourth-generation programming language">Fourth generation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fifth-generation_programming_language" title="Fifth-generation programming language">Fifth generation</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Visual_Basic_.NET" title="Visual Basic .NET">Visual Basic .NET</a> (VB.NET)</li>
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title="Llenguatge de programació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv"><a href="//cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%87%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8" title="Компьютер чĕлхи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programovac%C3%AD_jazyk" title="Programovací jazyk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="//cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iaith_rhaglennu" title="Iaith rhaglennu – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmeringssprog" title="Programmeringssprog – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmiersprache" title="Programmiersprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmeerimiskeel" title="Programmeerimiskeel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1_%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D" title="Γλώσσα προγραμματισμού – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguaje_de_programaci%C3%B3n" title="Lenguaje de programación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programlingvo" title="Programlingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programazio-lengoaia" title="Programazio-lengoaia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="زبان برنامه‌نویسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langage_de_programmation" title="Langage de programmation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="//ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teanga_r%C3%ADomhchl%C3%A1r%C3%BAch%C3%A1in" title="Teanga ríomhchlárúcháin – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguaxe_de_programaci%C3%B3n" title="Linguaxe de programación – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%84%EB%A1%9C%EA%B7%B8%EB%9E%98%EB%B0%8D_%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4" title="프로그래밍 언어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BE%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%B8%D6%82" title="Ծրագրավորման լեզու – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="//hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="प्रोग्रामिंग भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb"><a href="//hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program%C4%9Browanske_r%C4%9B%C4%8De" title="Programěrowanske rěče – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programski_jezik" title="Programski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="//io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programifo-lingui" title="Programifo-lingui – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo"><a href="//ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengguahe_ti_panangprograma" title="Lengguahe ti panangprograma – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_pemrograman" title="Bahasa pemrograman – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="//ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguage_de_programmation" title="Linguage de programmation – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie"><a href="//ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_de_programmation" title="Lingua de programmation – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="//is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forritunarm%C3%A1l" title="Forritunarmál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguaggio_di_programmazione" title="Linguaggio di programmazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%AA%D7%9B%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA" title="שפת תכנות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a href="//jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_pamrograman" title="Basa pamrograman – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv">Basa Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="//ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="პროგრამირების ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D2%93%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Бағдарламалау тілі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="//ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BE_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Программалоо тили – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_programmandi" title="Lingua programmandi – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programm%C4%93%C5%A1anas_valoda" title="Programmēšanas valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a href="//lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programm%C3%A9iersprooch" title="Programméiersprooch – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programavimo_kalba" title="Programavimo kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo"><a href="//jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/samplabau" title="samplabau – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programoz%C3%A1si_nyelv" title="Programozási nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Програмски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7" title="പ്രോഗ്രാമിംഗ് ഭാഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a href="//mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="प्रोग्रॅमिंग भाषा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a href="//arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%87" title="لغة برمجه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_pengaturcaraan" title="Bahasa pengaturcaraan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo"><a href="//cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C4%95ng-ti%C3%A0ng_ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84-ngi%C3%B2ng" title="Piĕng-tiàng ngṳ̄-ngiòng – Min Dong Chinese" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo">Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl"><a href="//mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguaige_de_porgrama%C3%A7on" title="Lenguaige de porgramaçon – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a href="//mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%87%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Програмчлалын хэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a href="//my.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmeertaal" title="Programmeertaal – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="//ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="कम्प्युटर भाषा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B0%E3%83%A9%E3%83%9F%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B0%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E" title="プログラミング言語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmeringsspr%C3%A5k" title="Programmeringsspråk – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmeringsspr%C3%A5k" title="Programmeringsspråk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengatge_de_programacion" title="Lengatge de programacion – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr"><a href="//mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88_%D0%B9%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B5" title="Программлымаш йылме – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="//uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmalash_tili" title="Programmalash tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਪ੍ਰੋਗਰਾਮਿੰਗ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="//pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C" title="کمپیوٹر بولی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km"><a href="//km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%B8" title="ភាសាកម្មវិធី – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><a href="//nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmeerspraak" title="Programmeerspraak – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_programowania" title="Język programowania – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguagem_de_programa%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Linguagem de programação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbaj_de_programare" title="Limbaj de programare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a href="//rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Язык проґрамованя – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Язык программирования – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a href="//sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B0h%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Программалааhын тыла – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="//sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmin_leid" title="Programmin leid – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="//sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuh%C3%AB_programimi" title="Gjuhë programimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si"><a href="//si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%9B%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="ක්‍රමලේඛන භාෂාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programovac%C3%AD_jazyk" title="Programovací jazyk – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programski_jezik" title="Programski jezik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%95%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%95%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="زمانی بەرنامەسازی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Програмски језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programski_jezik" title="Programski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su"><a href="//su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_program" title="Basa program – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su">Basa Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohjelmointikieli" title="Ohjelmointikieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programspr%C3%A5k" title="Programspråk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="//tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_pamprograma" title="Wikang pamprograma – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a 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