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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Philosophy</h1>
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<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">a series</a> on</td>
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<th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;font-size:200%;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.15em;"><strong class="selflink">Philosophy</strong></th>
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<tr>
<td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Philbar_2.png" class="image" title="Left to right: Plato, Kant, Nietzsche"><img alt="Left to right: Plato, Kant, Nietzsche" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Philbar_2.png" width="220" height="73" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="73" /></a>
<div style="padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:90%;font-style:italic;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>&#160;– <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>&#160;– <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></div>
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<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Philosophers" title="Category:Philosophers">Philosophers</a></th>
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<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aestheticians</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_social_and_political_philosophers" title="List of social and political philosophers">Social and political philosophers</a></li>
</ul>
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<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Philosophical_traditions" title="Category:Philosophical traditions">Traditions</a></th>
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<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></li>
</ul>
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<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_period" title="Category:Philosophy by period">Periods</a></th>
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<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
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<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Philosophical_literature" title="Category:Philosophical literature">Literature</a></th>
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<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Aesthetics_literature" title="Category:Aesthetics literature">Aesthetics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Epistemology_literature" title="Category:Epistemology literature">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Ethics_literature" title="Category:Ethics literature">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Logic_literature" title="Category:Logic literature">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Metaphysics_literature" title="Category:Metaphysics literature">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy_literature" title="Category:Political philosophy literature">Political philosophy</a></li>
</ul>
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<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></th>
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<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" title="Philosophy of law">Legal philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li>
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</td>
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<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Philosophy-related_lists" title="Category:Philosophy-related lists">Lists</a></th>
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<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Theories</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
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<p><b>Philosophy</b> is the study of the general and fundamental nature of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">existence</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">knowledge</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">values</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">reason</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">mind</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-philosophy_1-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-philosophy-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-philosophical_2-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-philosophical-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φιλοσοφία</span> (<i>philosophia</i>) was probably coined by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a><sup id="cite_ref-tufts1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-tufts1-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> and literally means "love of wisdom" or "friend of wisdom".<sup id="cite_ref-tufts_5-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-tufts-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Online_Etymology_Dictionary_6-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Online_Etymology_Dictionary-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Webster.27s_New_World_Dictionary_7-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Webster.27s_New_World_Dictionary-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oed.com_9-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-oed.com-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> Philosophy has been divided into many sub-fields. It has been divided chronologically (e.g., <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">ancient</a> and <a href="Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">modern</a>); by topic (the major topics being <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>); and by style (e.g., <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic</a> philosophy).</p>
<p>As a method, philosophy is often distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its questioning, critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">rational argument</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-justification_10-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-justification-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> As a noun, the term "philosophy" can refer to any body of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> Historically, these bodies of knowledge were commonly divided into <a href="Science" title="Science">natural philosophy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">moral philosophy</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oed.com_9-1" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-oed.com-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> In casual speech, the term can refer to any of "the most basic beliefs, concepts, and attitudes of an individual or group," (e.g., "Dr. Smith's philosophy of parenting").<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_12-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Webster-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="Philosophy#Areas_of_inquiry"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Areas of inquiry</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="Philosophy#Epistemology"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Epistemology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="Philosophy#Logic"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Logic</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="Philosophy#Metaphysics"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Metaphysics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="Philosophy#Ethics_and_political_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Ethics and political philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="Philosophy#Aesthetics"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Aesthetics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="Philosophy#Specialized_branches"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Specialized branches</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="Philosophy#History"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="Philosophy#Ancient_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="Philosophy#Egypt_and_Babylon"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Egypt and Babylon</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="Philosophy#Ancient_Chinese"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient Chinese</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="Philosophy#Ancient_Graeco-Roman"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient Graeco-Roman</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="Philosophy#Ancient_Indian"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient Indian</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="Philosophy#Ancient_Persian"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient Persian</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="Philosophy#5th.E2.80.9316th_centuries"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">5th–16th centuries</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="Philosophy#Europe"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Europe</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-17"><a href="Philosophy#Medieval"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Medieval</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-18"><a href="Philosophy#Renaissance"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Renaissance</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="Philosophy#East_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">East Asia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="Philosophy#India"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">India</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="Philosophy#Middle_East"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Middle East</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="Philosophy#Mesoamerica"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Mesoamerica</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="Philosophy#Africa"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Africa</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="Philosophy#17th.E2.80.9320th_centuries"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">17th–20th centuries</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="Philosophy#Early_modern_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Early modern philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="Philosophy#19th-century_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">19th-century philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="Philosophy#20th-century_and_21st-century_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.3.3</span> <span class="toctext">20th-century and 21st-century philosophy</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="Philosophy#Major_traditions"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Major traditions</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="Philosophy#German_idealism"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">German idealism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="Philosophy#Pragmatism"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Pragmatism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="Philosophy#Phenomenology"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Phenomenology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="Philosophy#Existentialism"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Existentialism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="Philosophy#Structuralism_and_post-structuralism"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Structuralism and post-structuralism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="Philosophy#Thomism"><span class="tocnumber">3.6</span> <span class="toctext">Thomism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="Philosophy#The_analytic_tradition"><span class="tocnumber">3.7</span> <span class="toctext">The analytic tradition</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="Philosophy#Applied_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Applied philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="Philosophy#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="Philosophy#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="Philosophy#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="Philosophy#Introductions"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Introductions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><a href="Philosophy#Topical_introductions"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Topical introductions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-42"><a href="Philosophy#Anthologies"><span class="tocnumber">7.3</span> <span class="toctext">Anthologies</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-43"><a href="Philosophy#Reference_works"><span class="tocnumber">7.4</span> <span class="toctext">Reference works</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><a href="Philosophy#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Areas_of_inquiry">Areas of inquiry</span></h2>
<p>Philosophy has been divided into many sub-fields. In modern universities, these sub-fields are distinguished either by chronology or topic or style.</p>
<ul>
<li>Chronological divisions include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">ancient</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a>, <a href="Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">modern</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">contemporary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li>Topical divisions include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nyu_14-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-nyu-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aesthetics-_definition_15-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Aesthetics-_definition-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li>Divisions of style include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental</a>, and social/political philosophy, among others.</li>
</ul>
<p>Some of the major areas of study are considered individually below.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Epistemology">Epistemology</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div>
<p>Epistemology is concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge,<sup id="cite_ref-Webster.27s_Revised_Unabridged_Dictionary_16-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Webster.27s_Revised_Unabridged_Dictionary-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup> such as the relationships between <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">theories of justification</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a> is the position which questions the possibility of completely justifying any truth. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regress_argument" title="Regress argument">regress argument</a>, a fundamental problem in epistemology, occurs when, in order to completely prove any statement, its justification itself needs to be supported by another justification. This chain can do three possible options, all of which are unsatisfactory according to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCnchhausen_trilemma" title="Münchhausen trilemma">Münchhausen trilemma</a>. One option is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">infinitism</a>, where this chain of justification can go on forever. Another option is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">foundationalism</a>, where the chain of justifications eventually relies on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_beliefs" title="Basic beliefs" class="mw-redirect">basic beliefs</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a> that are left unproven. The last option, such as in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">coherentism</a>, is making the chain <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_argument" title="Circular argument" class="mw-redirect">circular</a> so that a statement is included in its own chain of justification.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> is the emphasis on reasoning as a source of knowledge. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a> is the emphasis on observational evidence via sensory experience over other evidence as the source of knowledge. Rationalism claims that every possible object of knowledge can be deduced from coherent premises without observation. Empiricism claims that at least some knowledge is only a matter of observation. For this, Empiricism often cites the concept of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">tabula rasa</a>, where individuals are not born with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_content" title="Mental content" class="mw-redirect">mental content</a> and that knowledge builds from experience or perception. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological_solipsism" title="Epistemological solipsism">Epistemological solipsism</a> is the idea that the existence of the world outside the mind is an unresolvable question.</p>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/170px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" width="170" height="208" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/255px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/340px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1000" /></a>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> (fl. 500 BC) argued that it is impossible to doubt that thinking actually occurs. But thinking must have an object, therefore something <i>beyond</i> thinking really exists. Parmenides deduced that what really exists must have certain properties—for example, that it cannot come into existence or cease to exist, that it is a coherent whole, that it remains the same eternally (in fact, exists altogether outside time). This is known as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_man_argument" title="Third man argument">third man argument</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (427–347 BC) combined rationalism with a form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a>. The philosopher's work is to consider being, and the essence (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">ousia</a>) of things. But the characteristic of essences is that they are universal. The nature of a man, a triangle, a tree, applies to all men, all triangles, all trees. Plato argued that these essences are mind-independent "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms" class="mw-redirect">forms</a>", that humans (but particularly philosophers) can come to know by reason, and by ignoring the distractions of sense-perception.</p>
<p>Modern rationalism begins with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes" title="Descartes" class="mw-redirect">Descartes</a>. Reflection on the nature of perceptual experience, as well as scientific discoveries in physiology and optics, led Descartes (and also <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a>) to the view that we are directly aware of ideas, rather than objects. This view gave rise to three questions:</p>
<ol>
<li>Is an idea a true copy of the real thing that it represents? Sensation is not a direct interaction between bodily objects and our sense, but is a physiological process involving representation (for example, an image on the retina). Locke thought that a "secondary quality" such as a sensation of green could in no way resemble the arrangement of particles in matter that go to produce this sensation, although he thought that "primary qualities" such as shape, size, number, were really in objects.</li>
<li>How can physical objects such as chairs and tables, or even physiological processes in the brain, give rise to mental items such as ideas? This is part of what became known as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind-body_problem" title="Mind-body problem" class="mw-redirect">mind-body problem</a>.</li>
<li>If all the contents of awareness are ideas, how can we know that anything exists apart from ideas?</li>
</ol>
<p>Descartes tried to address the last problem by reason. He began, echoing Parmenides, with a principle that he thought could not coherently be denied: I <i>think</i>, therefore I <i>am</i> (often given in his original Latin: <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">Cogito ergo sum</a></i>). From this principle, Descartes went on to construct a complete system of knowledge (which involves proving the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">existence of God</a>, using, among other means, a version of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">ontological argument</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-The_Principles_of_Philosophy_.28IX.29_17-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-The_Principles_of_Philosophy_.28IX.29-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> His view that reason alone could yield substantial truths about reality strongly influenced those philosophers usually considered modern rationalists (such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz" class="mw-redirect">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a>), while provoking criticism from other philosophers who have retrospectively come to be grouped together as empiricists.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Logic">Logic</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></div>
<p>Logic is the study of the principles of correct <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasoning" title="Reasoning" class="mw-redirect">reasoning</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Arguments</a> use either <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive</a> reasoning or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive</a> reasoning. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deductive reasoning</a> is when, given certain statements (called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">premises</a>), other statements (called conclusions) are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">unavoidably implied</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rules_of_inference" title="Rules of inference" class="mw-redirect">Rules of inference</a> from premises include the most popular method, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modus_ponens" title="Modus ponens">modus ponens</a>, where given “A” and “If A then B”, then “B” must be concluded. A common convention for a deductive argument is the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogism</a>. An argument is termed <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity" title="Validity">valid</a> if its conclusion does follow from its premises, whether the premises are true or not, while an argument is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundness" title="Soundness">sound</a> if its conclusion follows from premises that are true. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositional_logic" title="Propositional logic" class="mw-redirect">Propositional logic</a> uses premises that are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">propositions</a>, which are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">declarations</a> that are either true or false, while <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_logic" title="Predicate logic">predicate logic</a> uses more complex premises called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_(mathematical_logic)" title="Formula (mathematical logic)" class="mw-redirect">formulae</a> that contain <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(math)" title="Variable (math)" class="mw-redirect">variables</a>. These can be assigned values or can be <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantification_(logic)" title="Quantification (logic)" class="mw-redirect">quantified</a> as to when they apply with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_quantifier" title="Universal quantifier" class="mw-redirect">universal quantifier</a> (always apply) or the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_quantifier" title="Existential quantifier" class="mw-redirect">existential quantifier</a> (applies at least once). <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a> makes conclusions or generalizations based on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probabilistic_reasoning" title="Probabilistic reasoning" class="mw-redirect">probabilistic reasoning</a>. For example, if “90% of humans are right-handed” and “Joe is human” then “Joe is probably right-handed”. Fields in logic include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">mathematical logic</a> (formal symbolic logic) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">philosophical logic</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div>
<p>Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>, the relationship between <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">body</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" title="Object (philosophy)">objects</a> and their <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a>, wholes and their parts, events, processes, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causation</a>. Traditional branches of metaphysics include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, the study of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World" title="World">world</a> in its entirety, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, the study of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being" title="Being">being</a>.</p>
<p>Within metaphysics itself there are a wide range of differing philosophical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theories</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>, for example, is the belief that reality is mentally constructed or otherwise immaterial while <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a> holds that reality, or at least some part of it, exists independently of the mind. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective idealism</a> describes objects as no more than collections or "bundles" of sense data in the perceiver. The 18th-century philosopher <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a> contended that existence is fundamentally tied to perception with the phrase <i>Esse est aut percipi aut percipere</i> or "To be is to be perceived or to perceive".<sup id="cite_ref-Idealism_18-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Idealism-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>In addition to the aforementioned views, however, there is also an ontological <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichotomy" title="Dichotomy">dichotomy</a> within metaphysics between the concepts of particulars and universals as well. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particular" title="Particular">Particulars</a> are those objects that are said to exist in space and time, as opposed to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_objects" title="Abstract objects" class="mw-redirect">abstract objects</a>, such as numbers. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universals" title="Universals" class="mw-redirect">Universals</a> are properties held by multiple particulars, such as redness or a gender. The type of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>, if any, of universals and abstract objects is an issue of serious <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debate" title="Debate">debate</a> within metaphysical philosophy. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a> is the philosophical position that universals do in fact exist, while <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">nominalism</a> is the negation, or denial of universals, abstract objects, or both.<sup id="cite_ref-stanford_19-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-stanford-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a> holds that universals exist, but only within the mind's perception.<sup id="cite_ref-conceptualism_20-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-conceptualism-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>The question of whether or not <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a> is a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/predicate" class="extiw" title="wikt:predicate">predicate</a> has been discussed since the Early Modern period. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a> is the set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_identity" title="Personal identity">identity</a>. Essence is contrasted with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">accident</a>: a property that the substance has <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysical_contingency" title="Metaphysical contingency" class="mw-redirect">contingently</a>, without which the substance can still retain its identity.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ethics_and_political_philosophy">Ethics and political philosophy</span></h3>
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<td class="mbox-text"><span class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>. <span class="hide-when-compact">Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philosophy&amp;action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing_with_Wiki_Markup/1" title="Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <small><i>(September 2012)</i></small></span></td>
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<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></div>
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<p>Ethics, or "moral philosophy," is concerned primarily with the question of the best way to live, and secondarily, concerning the question of whether this question can be answered. The main branches of ethics are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">meta-ethics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">normative ethics</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">applied ethics</a>. Meta-ethics concerns the nature of ethical thought, such as the origins of the words good and bad, and origins of other comparative words of various ethical systems, whether there are absolute ethical truths, and how such truths could be known. Normative ethics are more concerned with the questions of how one ought to act, and what the right course of action is. This is where most ethical theories are generated. Lastly, applied ethics go beyond theory and step into real world ethical practice, such as questions of whether or not abortion is correct. Ethics is also associated with the idea of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>, and the two are often interchangeable.</p>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></div>
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<p>One debate that has commanded the attention of ethicists in the modern era has been between <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a> (actions are to be morally evaluated solely by their <i>consequences</i>) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology" class="mw-redirect">deontology</a> (actions are to be morally evaluated solely by consideration of agents' <i>duties</i>, the <i>rights</i> of those whom the action concerns, or both). <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> are famous for promulgating <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>, which is the idea that the fundamental moral rule is to strive toward the "greatest happiness for the greatest number". However, in promoting this idea they also necessarily promoted the broader doctrine of consequentialism. Adopting a position opposed to consequentialism, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> argued that moral principles were simply products of reason. Kant believed that the incorporation of consequences into moral deliberation was a deep mistake, since it denies the necessity of practical maxims in governing the working of the will. According to Kant, reason requires that we conform our actions to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">categorical imperative</a>, which is an absolute duty. An important 20th-century deontologist, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.D._Ross" title="W.D. Ross" class="mw-redirect">W.D. Ross</a>, argued for weaker forms of duties called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prima_facie_duty" title="Prima facie duty" class="mw-redirect"><i>prima facie</i> duties</a>.</p>
<p>More recent works have emphasized the role of character in ethics, a movement known as the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aretaic_turn" title="Aretaic turn" class="mw-redirect">aretaic turn</a></i> (that is, the <i>turn towards virtues</i>). One strain of this movement followed the work of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a>. Williams noted that rigid forms of consequentialism and deontology demanded that people behave impartially. This, Williams argued, requires that people abandon their personal projects, and hence their personal <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrity" title="Integrity">integrity</a>, in order to be considered moral. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Anscombe" title="Elizabeth Anscombe">Elizabeth Anscombe</a>, in an influential paper, "Modern Moral Philosophy" (1958), revived <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a> as an alternative to what was seen as the entrenched positions of Kantianism and consequentialism. Aretaic perspectives have been inspired in part by research of ancient conceptions of virtue. For example, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle%27s_ethics" title="Aristotle's ethics" class="mw-redirect">Aristotle's ethics</a> demands that people follow the <i>Aristotelian mean</i>, or balance between two vices; and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucian</a> ethics argues that virtue consists largely in striving for harmony with other people. Virtue ethics in general has since gained many adherents, and has been defended by such philosophers as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind_Hursthouse" title="Rosalind Hursthouse">Rosalind Hursthouse</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></div>
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<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a> is the study of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> and the relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to communities including the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a>. It includes questions about justice, law, property, and the rights and obligations of the citizen. Politics and ethics are traditionally inter-linked subjects, as both discuss the question of what is good and how people should live. From ancient times, and well beyond them, the roots of justification for political authority were inescapably tied to outlooks on human nature. In <i>The Republic</i>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> presented the argument that the ideal society would be run by a council of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosopher-king" title="Philosopher-king" class="mw-redirect">philosopher-kings</a>, since those best at philosophy are best able to realize the good. Even Plato, however, required philosophers to make their way in the world for many years before beginning their rule at the age of fifty.</p>
<p>For <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, humans are political animals (i.e. social animals), and governments are set up to pursue good for the community. Aristotle reasoned that, since the state (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a></i>) was the highest form of community, it has the purpose of pursuing the highest good. Aristotle viewed political power as the result of natural inequalities in skill and virtue. Because of these differences, he favored an aristocracy of the able and virtuous. For Aristotle, the person cannot be complete unless he or she lives in a community. His <i>The Nicomachean Ethics</i> and <i>The Politics</i> are meant to be read in that order. The first book addresses virtues (or "excellences") in the person as a citizen; the second addresses the proper form of government to ensure that citizens will be virtuous, and therefore complete. Both books deal with the essential role of justice in civic life.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_of_Cusa" title="Nicolas of Cusa" class="mw-redirect">Nicolas of Cusa</a> rekindled Platonic thought in the early 15th century. He promoted democracy in Medieval Europe, both in his writings and in his organization of the Council of Florence. Unlike Aristotle and the Hobbesian tradition to follow, Cusa saw human beings as equal and divine (that is, made in God's image), so democracy would be the only just form of government. Cusa's views are credited by some as sparking the Italian Renaissance, which gave rise to the notion of "Nation-States".</p>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a></div>
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<p>Later, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a> rejected the views of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas as unrealistic. The ideal sovereign is not the embodiment of the moral virtues; rather the sovereign does whatever is successful and necessary, rather than what is morally praiseworthy. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> also contested many elements of Aristotle's views. For Hobbes, human nature is essentially anti-social: people are essentially egoistic, and this egoism makes life difficult in the natural state of things. Moreover, Hobbes argued, though people may have natural inequalities, these are trivial, since no particular talents or virtues that people may have will make them safe from harm inflicted by others. For these reasons, Hobbes concluded that the state arises from a common agreement to raise the community out of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a>. This can only be done by the establishment of a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereign</a>, in which (or whom) is vested complete control over the community, and is able to inspire awe and terror in its subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-Leviathan_21-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Leviathan-21"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></div>
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<p>Many in the Enlightenment were unsatisfied with existing doctrines in political philosophy, which seemed to marginalize or neglect the possibility of a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic state</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> was among those who attempted to overturn these doctrines: he responded to Hobbes by claiming that a human is by nature a kind of "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_savage" title="Noble savage">noble savage</a>", and that society and social contracts corrupt this nature. Another critic was <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>. In <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Second Treatise on Government</a></i> he agreed with Hobbes that the nation-state was an efficient tool for raising humanity out of a deplorable state, but he argued that the sovereign might become an abominable institution compared to the relatively benign unmodulated state of nature.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Selected_Political_Writings_of_John_Locke_22-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-The_Selected_Political_Writings_of_John_Locke-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Following the doctrine of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fact-value_distinction" title="Fact-value distinction" class="mw-redirect">fact-value distinction</a>, due in part to the influence of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> and his student <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, appeals to human nature for political justification were weakened. Nevertheless, many political philosophers, especially <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">moral realists</a>, still make use of some essential human nature as a basis for their arguments.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> is derived from the work of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>. Their idea that capitalism is based on exploitation of workers and causes alienation of people from their human nature, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">historical materialism</a>, their view of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_classes" title="Social classes" class="mw-redirect">social classes</a>, etc., have influenced many fields of study, such as sociology, economics, and politics. Marxism inspired the Marxist school of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, which brought a huge impact on the history of the 20th century.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></div>
<p>Aesthetics deals with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">beauty</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, enjoyment, sensory-emotional values, perception, and matters of taste and sentiment. It is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">beauty</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" title="Taste (sociology)">taste</a>, with the creation and appreciation of beauty.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> It is more scientifically defined as the study of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senses" title="Senses" class="mw-redirect">sensory</a> or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judgment" title="Judgment" class="mw-redirect">judgments</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">sentiment</a> and taste.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as "critical reflection on art, culture and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-27"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>More specific aesthetic theory, often with practical implications, relating to a particular branch of the arts is divided into areas of aesthetics such as art theory, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">literary theory</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_theory" title="Film theory">film theory</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_theory" title="Music theory">music theory</a>. An example from art theory is aesthetic theory as a set of principles underlying the work of a particular artist or artistic movement: such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubist" title="Cubist" class="mw-redirect">Cubist</a> aesthetic.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-28"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Specialized_branches">Specialized branches</span></h3>
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<li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></b> refers to the theoretical aspect of history.</li>
<li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></b> explores the nature, the origins, and the use of language.</li>
<li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></b> (often called <b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></b>) explores the varying theories explaining the nature and the interpretations of law.</li>
<li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></b> explores the nature of the mind, and its relationship to the body, and is typified by disputes between <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">dualism</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>. In recent years there has been increasing similarity between this branch of philosophy and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>.</li>
<li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></b> explores questions that often arise in connection with one or several religions, including the soul, the afterlife, God, religious experiences, analysis of religious vocabulary and texts, and the relationship of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> and <a href="Science" title="Science">science</a>.</li>
<li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></b> explores the foundations, methods, history, implications, and purpose of science.</li>
<li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist philosophy</a></b> explores questions surrounding gender, sexuality, and the body including the nature of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a> itself as a social and philosophical movement.</li>
<li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Philosophy of film</a></b> analyzes films and filmmakers for their philosophical content and style explores film (images, cinema, etc.) as a medium for philosophical reflection and expression.</li>
<li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></b> explores the aims of philosophy, its boundaries, and its methods.</li>
</ul>
<p>Many academic disciplines have also generated philosophical inquiry. These include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_History" title="Philosophy of History" class="mw-redirect">history</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_logic" title="Philosophy of logic">logic</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">mathematics</a>.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a></div>
<div class="hatnote">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Western_philosophy" title="History of Western philosophy" class="mw-redirect">History of Western philosophy</a></div>
<div class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_progress" title="Philosophical progress">Philosophical progress</a></div>
<p>Many societies have considered philosophical questions and built philosophical traditions based upon each other's works.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a> is organized by the chronological periods of each region. Historians of western philosophy usually divide the subject into three or more periods, the most important being <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">ancient philosophy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval philosophy</a>, and <a href="Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">modern philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-renaissance_29-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-renaissance-29"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_philosophy">Ancient philosophy</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient philosophy</a></div>
<p>In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>, the spread of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> through the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> marked the ending of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> and ushered in the beginnings of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophy</a>, whereas in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">spread of Islam</a> through the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Arab Empire</a> marked the end of <a href="Philosophy#Ancient_Iranian_philosophy">Old Iranian philosophy</a> and ushered in the beginnings of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">early Islamic philosophy</a>. Genuinely philosophical thought, depending upon original individual insights, arose in many cultures roughly contemporaneously. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a> termed the intense period of philosophical development beginning around the 7th century and concluding around the 3rd century BCE an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a> in human thought.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Egypt_and_Babylon">Egypt and Babylon</span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African philosophy</a></div>
<div class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_literature#Philosophy" title="Babylonian literature" class="mw-redirect">Babylonian literature: Philosophy</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Ancient Egyptian philosophy</a></div>
<p>There are authors who date the philosophical maxims of Ptahhotep before the 25th century. For instance, Pulitzer Prize–winning historian <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will Durant</a> dates these writings as early as 2880 BCE within <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Story_of_Civilization" title="The Story of Civilization">The Story of Civilization</a>: Our Oriental History</i>. Durant claims that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptahhotep" title="Ptahhotep">Ptahhotep</a> could be considered the very first philosopher in virtue of having the earliest and surviving fragments of moral philosophy (i.e., "The Maxims of Ptah-Hotep").<sup id="cite_ref-literature_30-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-literature-30"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup> Ptahhotep's grandson, Ptahhotep Tshefi, is traditionally credited with being the author of the collection of wise sayings known as <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Maxims_of_Ptahhotep" title="The Maxims of Ptahhotep">The Maxims of Ptahhotep</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-grimal_31-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-grimal-31"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup> whose opening lines attribute authorship to the vizier Ptahhotep: "Instruction of the Mayor of the city, the Vizier Ptahhotep, under the Majesty of King Isesi".</p>
<p>The origins of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> philosophy can be traced back to the wisdom of early <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, in the forms of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue" title="Dialogue">dialogues</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poetry</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymns</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyrics" title="Lyrics">lyrics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proverb" title="Proverb">proverbs</a>. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasoning" title="Reasoning" class="mw-redirect">reasoning</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a> of the Babylonians developed beyond <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical</a> observation.<sup id="cite_ref-mesopotamia_32-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-mesopotamia-32"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup> The Babylonian text <i>Dialog of Pessimism</i> contains similarities to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnostic" title="Agnostic" class="mw-redirect">agnostic</a> thought of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophists" title="Sophists" class="mw-redirect">sophists</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitean</a> doctrine of contrasts, and the dialogues of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, as well as a precursor to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maieutics" title="Maieutics" class="mw-redirect">maieutic</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> and Plato.<sup id="cite_ref-mesopotamia2_33-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-mesopotamia2-33"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup> The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milesians_(Greek)" title="Milesians (Greek)" class="mw-redirect">Milesian</a> philosopher <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales" title="Thales">Thales</a> is also traditionally said to have studied philosophy in Mesopotamia.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_Chinese">Ancient Chinese</span></h4>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>, illustrated in <i>Myths &amp; Legends of China</i>, 1922, by E.T.C. Werner.</div>
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<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a></div>
<p>Philosophy has had a tremendous effect on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese civilization</a>, and throughout <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>. The majority of Chinese philosophy originates in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn" title="Spring and Autumn" class="mw-redirect">Spring and Autumn</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a> era, during a period known as the "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-pe_34-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-pe-34"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup> which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments.<sup id="cite_ref-pe_34-1" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-pe-34"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup> It was during this era that the major philosophies of China, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, arose, along with philosophies that later fell into obscurity, like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese Naturalism</a>, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a>. Of the many philosophical schools of China, only Confucianism and Taoism existed after the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_Dynasty" title="Qin Dynasty" class="mw-redirect">Qin Dynasty</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning_of_books_and_burying_of_scholars" title="Burning of books and burying of scholars">suppressed any Chinese philosophy</a> that was opposed to Legalism.</p>
<p>Confucianism is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanistic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-juergensmeyer_35-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-juergensmeyer-35"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup> philosophy that believes that human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucianism focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, the most basic of which are <i>ren</i>, <i>yi</i>, and <i>li</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-craig2_36-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-craig2-36"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup> <i>Ren</i> is an obligation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a> and humaneness for other individuals within a community, <i>yi</i> is the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good, and <i>li</i> is a system of norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act within a community.<sup id="cite_ref-craig2_36-1" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-craig2-36"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> focuses on establishing harmony with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a>, which is origin of and the totality of everything that exists. The word "Tao" (or "Dao", depending on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">romanization</a> scheme) is usually translated as "way", "path" or "principle". Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Treasures_(Taoism)" title="Three Treasures (Taoism)">Three Jewels of the Tao</a>: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderation" title="Moderation">moderation</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">humility</a>, while Taoist thought generally focuses on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>, the relationship between humanity and the cosmos (<span lang="zh" xml:lang="zh">天人相应</span>); <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longevity" title="Longevity">longevity</a>; and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a>, action through inaction. Harmony with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a>, or the origin of it through the Tao, is the intended result of many Taoist rules and practices.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_Graeco-Roman">Ancient Graeco-Roman</span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></div>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (<i>left</i>) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<i>right</i>): detail from <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i> by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raffaello_Sanzio" title="Raffaello Sanzio" class="mw-redirect">Raffaello Sanzio</a>, 1509</div>
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<p>Ancient Graeco-Roman philosophy is a period of Western philosophy, starting in the 6th century [c. 585] BC to the 6th century AD. It is usually divided into three periods: the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">pre-Socratic period</a>, the Ancient Classical Greek period of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, and the post-Aristotelian (or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a>) period. A fourth period that is sometimes added includes the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplatonic" title="Neoplatonic" class="mw-redirect">Neoplatonic</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" title="Christian">Christian</a> philosophers of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Antiquity" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>. The most important of the ancient philosophers (in terms of subsequent influence) are Plato and Aristotle.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy_37-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup> Plato specifically, is credited as the founder of Western philosophy. The philosopher <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a> said of Plato: "The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. I do not mean the systematic scheme of thought which scholars have doubtfully extracted from his writings. I allude to the wealth of general ideas scattered through them."<sup id="cite_ref-process_38-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-process-38"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>It was said in Roman Ancient history that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> was the first man to call himself a philosopher, or lover of wisdom,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-39"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></a></sup> and Pythagorean ideas exercised a marked influence on Plato, and through him, all of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>. Plato and Aristotle, the first <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greek</a> philosophers, did refer critically to other simple "wise men", which were called in Greek "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">sophists</a>," and which were common before Pythagoras' time. From their critique it appears that a distinction was then established in their own Classical period between the more elevated and pure "lovers of wisdom" (the true Philosophers), and these other earlier and more common traveling teachers, who often also earned money from their craft.</p>
<p>The main subjects of ancient philosophy are: understanding the fundamental causes and principles of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>; explaining it in an economical way; the epistemological problem of reconciling the diversity and change of the natural universe, with the possibility of obtaining fixed and certain knowledge about it; questions about things that cannot be perceived by the senses, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number" title="Number">numbers</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">elements</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universals" title="Universals" class="mw-redirect">universals</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gods" title="Gods" class="mw-redirect">gods</a>. Socrates is said to have been the initiator of more focused study upon the human things including the analysis of patterns of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasoning" title="Reasoning" class="mw-redirect">reasoning</a> and argument and the nature of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_good_life" title="The good life">the good life</a> and the importance of understanding and knowledge in order to pursue it; the explication of the concept of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>, and its relation to various <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_systems" title="Political systems" class="mw-redirect">political systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy_37-1" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>In this period the crucial features of the Western <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_method" title="Philosophical method" class="mw-redirect">philosophical method</a> were established: a critical approach to received or established views, and the appeal to reason and argumentation. This includes Socrates' <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a> method of inquiry, known as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a> or method of "elenchus", which he largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts such as the Good and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a>. To solve a problem, it would be broken down into a series of questions, the answers to which gradually distill the answer a person would seek. The influence of this approach is most strongly felt today in the use of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>, in which <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> is the first stage.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_Indian">Ancient Indian</span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a></div>
<p>The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit: <i>Darshanas</i>), refers to any of several schools of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">philosophical thought</a> that originated in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain philosophy</a>. Having the same or rather intertwined origins, all of these philosophies have a common underlying themes of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a>, and similarly attempt to explain the attainment of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></i> (liberation). They have been formalized and promulgated chiefly between 1000 BC to a few centuries AD.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>'s philosophical tradition dates back to the composition of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upanisads" title="Upanisads" class="mw-redirect">Upanisads</a><sup id="cite_ref-principal_40-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-principal-40"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup> in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_period#The_later_Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">later Vedic period</a> (c. 1000-500 BCE). Subsequent schools (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Skt</a>: <i>Darshanas</i>) of Indian philosophy were identified as orthodox (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Skt</a>: <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astika" title="Astika" class="mw-redirect">astika</a></i>) or non-orthodox (Skt: <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nastika" title="Nastika" class="mw-redirect">nastika</a></i>), depending on whether or not they regarded the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> as an infallible source of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-dictionary_41-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-dictionary-41"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></a></sup> In the history of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, following the establishment of a Vedic culture, the development of philosophical and religious thought over a period of two millennia gave rise to what came to be called the six schools of <i>astika</i>, or orthodox, Indian or Hindu philosophy. These schools have come to be synonymous with the greater religion of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, which was a development of the early <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic religion</a>. Schools of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a> are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaisesika" title="Vaisesika" class="mw-redirect">Vaisesika</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purva_mimamsa" title="Purva mimamsa" class="mw-redirect">Purva mimamsa</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a>. Other classifications also include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Pashupata</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Saiva</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rase%C5%9Bvara" title="Raseśvara">Raseśvara</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> Darśana with the other orthodox schools.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarva-Darsana_Sangraha_of_Madhava_Acharya:_Review_of_Different_Systems_of_Hindu_Philosophy_42-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Sarva-Darsana_Sangraha_of_Madhava_Acharya:_Review_of_Different_Systems_of_Hindu_Philosophy-42"><span>[</span>42<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Jain philosophy revolves around the concept of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism" title="Ahimsa in Jainism">ahimsā</a></i> (non-violence). The major contribution of the Jain philosophy was the doctrine of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></i> (multiplicity of view points). According to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_epistemology" title="Jain epistemology">Jain epistemology</a>, knowledge is of five kinds – sensory knowledge, scriptural knowledge, clairvoyance, telepathy, and omniscience.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-43"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a> and materialist (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" title="Cārvāka" class="mw-redirect">Cārvāka</a>) philosophy refuted the idea of an eternal soul.</p>
<p>Competition and integration between the various schools was intense during their formative years, especially between 500 BC to 200 AD. Some like the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain" title="Jain" class="mw-redirect">Jain</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist" title="Buddhist" class="mw-redirect">Buddhist</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaiva" title="Shaiva" class="mw-redirect">Shaiva</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> schools survived, while others like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajivika" title="Ajivika" class="mw-redirect">Ajivika</a> did not, either being assimilated or going extinct. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> term for "philosopher" is <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" class="Unicode" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none">dārśanika</span></i>, one who is familiar with the systems of philosophy, or <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" class="Unicode" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none">darśanas</span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-apte_44-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-apte-44"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_Persian">Ancient Persian</span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian philosophy</a></div>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarathustra" title="Zarathustra" class="mw-redirect">Zarathustra</a></div>
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<p>Persian philosophy can be traced back as far as Old Iranian philosophical traditions and thoughts, with their ancient <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranian</a> roots. These were considerably influenced by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarathustra" title="Zarathustra" class="mw-redirect">Zarathustra</a>'s teachings. Throughout Iranian history and due to remarkable political and social influences such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Macedonian</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Persia" title="Islamic conquest of Persia" class="mw-redirect">Arab</a>, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Central_Asia" title="Mongol invasion of Central Asia">Mongol invasions</a> of Persia, a wide spectrum of schools of thought arose. These espoused a variety of views on philosophical questions, extending from Old Iranian and mainly <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>-influenced traditions to schools appearing in the late pre-Islamic era, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manicheism" title="Manicheism" class="mw-redirect">Manicheism</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism" class="mw-redirect">Mazdakism</a>, as well as various post-Islamic schools. Iranian philosophy after Arab invasion of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persia" title="Persia" class="mw-redirect">Persia</a> is characterized by different interactions with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">old Iranian philosophy</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_philosophy" title="Greek philosophy" class="mw-redirect">Greek philosophy</a> and with the development of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">transcendent theosophy</a> are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of that era in Persia. Zoroastrianism has been identified as one of the key early events in the development of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackburn_45-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Blackburn-45"><span>[</span>45<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="5th.E2.80.9316th_centuries">5th–16th centuries</span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Europe">Europe</span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Medieval">Medieval</span></h5>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophy</a></div>
<p>Medieval philosophy is the philosophy of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, roughly extending from the Christianization of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> until the Renaissance.<sup id="cite_ref-encyclopedia_46-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-encyclopedia-46"><span>[</span>46<span>]</span></a></sup> Medieval philosophy is defined partly by the rediscovery and further development of classical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_philosophy" title="Greek philosophy" class="mw-redirect">Greek</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a>, and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate the then widespread sacred doctrines of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religion" title="Abrahamic religion" class="mw-redirect">Abrahamic religion</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>) with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secular</a> learning.</p>
<p>The history of western European medieval philosophy is traditionally divided into two main periods: the period in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_West" title="Latin West" class="mw-redirect">Latin West</a> following the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> until the 12th century, when the works of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> were preserved and cultivated; and the "golden age"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> of the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries in the Latin West, which witnessed the culmination of the recovery of ancient philosophy, and significant developments in the field of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>, logic and metaphysics.</p>
<p>The medieval era was disparagingly treated by the Renaissance <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanist" title="Humanist" class="mw-disambig">humanists</a>, who saw it as a barbaric "middle" period between the classical age of Greek and Roman culture, and the "rebirth" or <i>renaissance</i> of classical culture. Yet this period of nearly a thousand years was the longest period of philosophical development in Europe, and possibly the richest. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Gracia" title="Jorge Gracia" class="mw-redirect">Jorge Gracia</a> has argued that "in intensity, sophistication, and achievement, the philosophical flowering in the thirteenth century could be rightly said to rival the golden age of Greek philosophy in the fourth century B.C."<sup id="cite_ref-gracia_47-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-gracia-47"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Some problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a> to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, the existence and unity of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, the object of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of individuation.</p>
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St. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></div>
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<p>Philosophers from the Middle Ages include the Christian philosophers <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_of_Poitiers" title="Gilbert of Poitiers" class="mw-redirect">Gilbert of Poitiers</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a>; the Jewish philosophers <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a>; and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> philosophers <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Alkindus</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alfarabi</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham" class="mw-redirect">Alhazen</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Algazel</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Bajjah" title="Ibn Bajjah" class="mw-redirect">Avempace</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" title="Ibn Tufail">Abubacer</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khald%C5%ABn" title="Ibn Khaldūn" class="mw-redirect">Ibn Khaldūn</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>. The medieval tradition of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> continued to flourish as late as the 17th century, in figures such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Suarez" title="Francisco Suarez" class="mw-redirect">Francisco Suarez</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_St._Thomas" title="John of St. Thomas">John of St. Thomas</a>.</p>
<p>Aquinas, the father of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a>, was immensely influential in Catholic Europe; he placed a great emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing. His work was a significant departure from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplatonic" title="Neoplatonic" class="mw-redirect">Neoplatonic</a> and Augustinian thinking that had dominated much of early Scholasticism.</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Renaissance">Renaissance</span></h5>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/170px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg" width="170" height="310" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/255px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/340px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="2550" /></a>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a></div>
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<p>The Renaissance ("rebirth") was a period of transition between the Middle Ages and modern thought,<sup id="cite_ref-contemporaries_48-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-contemporaries-48"><span>[</span>48<span>]</span></a></sup> in which the recovery of classical texts helped shift philosophical interests away from technical studies in logic, metaphysics, and theology towards eclectic inquiries into morality, philology, and mysticism.<sup id="cite_ref-philosophies_49-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-philosophies-49"><span>[</span>49<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-renaissance3_50-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-renaissance3-50"><span>[</span>50<span>]</span></a></sup> The study of the classics and the humane arts generally, such as history and literature, enjoyed a scholarly interest hitherto unknown in Christendom, a tendency referred to as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-transmission_51-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-transmission-51"><span>[</span>51<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-naturalistic_52-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-naturalistic-52"><span>[</span>52<span>]</span></a></sup> Displacing the medieval interest in metaphysics and logic, the humanists followed <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> in making man and his virtues the focus of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-intellectual_53-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-intellectual-53"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_54-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man-54"><span>[</span>54<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>The study of classical philosophy also developed in two new ways. On the one hand, the study of Aristotle was changed through the influence of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a>. The disagreements between these Averroist Aristotelians, and more orthodox catholic Aristotelians such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> eventually contributed to the development of a "humanist Aristotelianism" developed in the Renaissance, as exemplified in the thought of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_Pomponazzi" title="Pietro Pomponazzi">Pietro Pomponazzi</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Zabarella" title="Giacomo Zabarella" class="mw-redirect">Giacomo Zabarella</a>. Secondly, as an alternative to Aristotle, the study of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplatonists" title="Neoplatonists" class="mw-redirect">Neoplatonists</a> became common. This was assisted by the rediscovery of works which had not been well known previously in Western Europe. Notable Renaissance Platonists include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a>, and later <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Giovanni Pico della Mirandola</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_54-1" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man-54"><span>[</span>54<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>The Renaissance also renewed interest in anti-Aristotelian theories of nature considered as an organic, living whole comprehensible independently of theology, as in the work of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Copernicus" title="Nicholas Copernicus" class="mw-redirect">Nicholas Copernicus</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telesius" title="Telesius" class="mw-redirect">Telesius</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Tommaso Campanella</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-renaissance4_55-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-renaissance4-55"><span>[</span>55<span>]</span></a></sup> Such movements in natural philosophy dovetailed with a revival of interest in occultism, magic, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">hermeticism</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, which were thought to yield hidden ways of knowing and mastering nature (e.g., in Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola).<sup id="cite_ref-philosophicae_56-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-philosophicae-56"><span>[</span>56<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>These new movements in philosophy developed contemporaneously with larger religious and political transformations in Europe: the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a> and the decline of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>. Though the theologians of the Protestant Reformation showed little direct interest in philosophy, their destruction of the traditional foundations of theological and intellectual authority harmonized with a revival of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">fideism</a> and skepticism in thinkers such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus" class="mw-redirect">Erasmus</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montaigne" title="Montaigne" class="mw-redirect">Montaigne</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Sanches" title="Francisco Sanches">Francisco Sanches</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-scepticism_57-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-scepticism-57"><span>[</span>57<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-copleston_58-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-copleston-58"><span>[</span>58<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-reformation_59-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-reformation-59"><span>[</span>59<span>]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, the gradual centralization of political power in nation-states was echoed by the emergence of secular political philosophies, as in the works of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a> (often described as the first modern political thinker, or a key turning point towards modern political thinking<sup id="cite_ref-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_60-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-60"><span>[</span>60<span>]</span></a></sup>), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus" class="mw-redirect">Erasmus</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justus_Lipsius" title="Justus Lipsius">Justus Lipsius</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Jean Bodin</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Hugo Grotius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-renaissance5_61-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-renaissance5-61"><span>[</span>61<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-renaissance6_62-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-renaissance6-62"><span>[</span>62<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="East_Asia">East Asia</span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese philosophy</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean philosophy</a></div>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-Imperial_China" title="Mid-Imperial China" class="mw-redirect">Mid-Imperial Chinese</a> philosophy is primarily defined by the development of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a>. During the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_Dynasty" title="Tang Dynasty" class="mw-redirect">Tang Dynasty</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a> also became a prominent philosophical and religious discipline. (It should be noted that philosophy and religion were clearly distinguished in the West, whilst these concepts were more continuous in the East due to, for example, the philosophical concepts of Buddhism.)</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a> is a philosophical movement that advocated a more rationalist and secular form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> by rejecting superstitious and mystical elements of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoism" title="Daoism" class="mw-redirect">Daoism</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> that had influenced Confucianism during and after the Han Dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-Japanese_Philosophy_63-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Japanese_Philosophy-63"><span>[</span>63<span>]</span></a></sup> Although the Neo-Confucianists were critical of Daoism and Buddhism,<sup id="cite_ref-huang5_64-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-huang5-64"><span>[</span>64<span>]</span></a></sup> the two did have an influence on the philosophy, and the Neo-Confucianists borrowed terms and concepts from both. However, unlike the Buddhists and Daoists, who saw <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> as a catalyst for spiritual development, religious enlightenment, and immortality, the Neo-Confucianists used metaphysics as a guide for developing a rationalist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-CSB_65-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-CSB-65"><span>[</span>65<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Neo-Confucianism has its origins in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_Dynasty" title="Tang Dynasty" class="mw-redirect">Tang Dynasty</a>; the Confucianist scholars <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Yu" title="Han Yu">Han Yu</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Ao" title="Li Ao">Li Ao</a> are seen as forbears of the Neo-Confucianists of the Song Dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-huang5_64-1" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-huang5-64"><span>[</span>64<span>]</span></a></sup> The Song Dynasty philosopher <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_Dunyi" title="Zhou Dunyi">Zhou Dunyi</a> is seen as the first true "pioneer" of Neo-Confucianism, using Daoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-CSB_65-1" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-CSB-65"><span>[</span>65<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Elsewhere in East Asia, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Philosophy" title="Japanese Philosophy" class="mw-redirect">Japanese Philosophy</a> began to develop as indigenous <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> beliefs fused with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> and other schools of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a>. Similar to Japan, in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean philosophy</a> the emotional content of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Shamanism" title="Korean Shamanism" class="mw-redirect">Shamanism</a> was integrated into the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a> imported from China. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese philosophy</a> was also influenced heavily by Confucianism in this period.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="India">India</span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a></div>
<div class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain philosophy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a></div>
<p>The period between 5th and 9th centuries CE was the most brilliant epoch in the development of Indian philosophy as Hindu and Buddhist philosophies flourished side by side.<sup id="cite_ref-banarsidass_66-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-banarsidass-66"><span>[</span>66<span>]</span></a></sup> Of these various schools of thought the non-dualistic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a> emerged as the most influential<sup id="cite_ref-google_67-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-google-67"><span>[</span>67<span>]</span></a></sup> and most dominant school of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-Gandhi_And_Mahayana_Buddhism_68-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Gandhi_And_Mahayana_Buddhism-68"><span>[</span>68<span>]</span></a></sup> The major philosophers of this school were <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidyaranya" title="Vidyaranya">Vidyaranya</a>.</p>
<p>Advaita Vedanta rejects theism and dualism by insisting that “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a> [ultimate reality] is without parts or attributes...one without a second.” Since Brahman has no properties, contains no internal diversity and is identical with the whole reality, it cannot be understood as God.<sup id="cite_ref-stanford7_69-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-stanford7-69"><span>[</span>69<span>]</span></a></sup> Brahman though being indescribable is at best described as Satchidananda (merging "Sat" + "Chit" + "Ananda", i.e., Existence, Consciousness and Bliss) by Shankara. Advaita ushered a new era in Indian philosophy and as a result, many new schools of thought arose in the medieval period. Some of them were <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visishtadvaita" title="Visishtadvaita" class="mw-redirect">Visishtadvaita</a> (qualified monism), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a> (dualism), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvaitadvaita" title="Dvaitadvaita">Dvaitadvaita</a> (dualism-nondualism), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suddhadvaita" title="Suddhadvaita" class="mw-redirect">Suddhadvaita</a> (pure non-dualism), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Achintya Bheda Abheda</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratyabhijna" title="Pratyabhijna">Pratyabhijña</a> (the recognitive school).</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Middle_East">Middle East</span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></div>
<p>In early Islamic thought, which refers to philosophy during the "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>", traditionally dated between the 8th and 12th centuries, two main currents may be distinguished. The first is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a>, that mainly dealt with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_theology" title="Islamic theology" class="mw-redirect">Islamic theological</a> questions. These include the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu%27tazili" title="Mu'tazili" class="mw-redirect">Mu'tazili</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ash%27ari" title="Ash'ari">Ash'ari</a>. The other is <a href="Philosophy#Falsafa">Falsafa</a>, that was founded on interpretations of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>. There were attempts by later philosopher-theologians at harmonizing both trends, notably by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina (Avicenna)</a> who founded the school of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd (Averroës)</a> who founded the school of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a>, and others such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhacen" title="Alhacen" class="mw-redirect">Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen)</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Rayh%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" title="Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī" class="mw-redirect">Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī</a>.</p>
<p>Avicenna argued his "Floating Man" thought experiment concerning <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-awareness" title="Self-awareness">Self-awareness</a>, in which a man prevented of sense experience by being blindfolded and free falling would still be aware of his existence.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-70"><span>[</span>70<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>In epistemology, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a> wrote the novel <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayy_ibn_Yaqdhan" title="Hayy ibn Yaqdhan">Hayy ibn Yaqdhan</a></i> and in response <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a> wrote the novel <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theologus_Autodidactus" title="Theologus Autodidactus">Theologus Autodidactus</a></i>. Both were concerning <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodidacticism" title="Autodidacticism">autodidacticism</a> as illuminated through the life of a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral_child" title="Feral child">feral child</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">spontaneously generated</a> in a cave on a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_island" title="Desert island">desert island</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec philosophy</a></div>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec philosophy</a> was the school of philosophy developed by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec" title="Aztec">Aztec</a> Empire. The Aztecs had a well-developed school of philosophy, perhaps the most developed in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> and in many ways comparable to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_philosophy" title="Greek philosophy" class="mw-redirect">Greek philosophy</a>, even amassing more texts than the ancient Greeks.<sup id="cite_ref-Mann1491_71-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Mann1491-71"><span>[</span>71<span>]</span></a></sup> Aztec philosophy focused on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">dualism</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monism</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>, and Aztec philosophers attempted to answer the main Aztec philosophical question of how to gain stability and balance in an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephemeral" title="Ephemeral" class="mw-redirect">ephemeral</a> world.</p>
<p>Aztec philosophy saw the concept of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ometeotl" title="Ometeotl">Ometeotl</a></i> as a unity that underlies the universe. Ometeotl forms, shapes, and is all things. Even things in opposition—light and dark, life and death—were seen as expressions of the same unity, Ometeotl. The belief in a unity with dualistic expressions compares with similar <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectical_monism" title="Dialectical monism">dialectical monist</a> ideas in both Western and Eastern philosophies.<sup id="cite_ref-iepMaffie_72-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-iepMaffie-72"><span>[</span>72<span>]</span></a></sup> Aztec priests had a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panentheistic" title="Panentheistic" class="mw-redirect">panentheistic</a> view of religion but the popular <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec religion</a> maintained <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheism</a>. Priests saw the different gods as aspects of the singular and transcendent unity of teotl but the masses were allowed to practice polytheism without understanding the true, unified nature of the Aztec gods.<sup id="cite_ref-iepMaffie_72-1" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-iepMaffie-72"><span>[</span>72<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Africa">Africa</span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian philosophy</a></div>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian philosophy</a> is the philosophical corpus of the territories of present-day <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>. Besides via oral tradition, it was preserved early on in written form through <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%27ez_language" title="Ge'ez language">Ge'ez</a> manuscripts. This philosophy occupies a unique position within <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African philosophy</a>. The character of Ethiopian philosophy is determined by the particular conditions of evolution of the Ethiopian culture. Thus, Ethiopian philosophy arises from the confluence of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patristic" title="Patristic" class="mw-redirect">Patristic</a> philosophy with traditional Ethiopian modes of thought. Because of the early isolation from its sources of Abrahamic spirituality&#160;– <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>&#160;– Ethiopia received some of its philosophical heritage through Arabic versions.</p>
<p>The sapiential literature developed under these circumstances is the result of a twofold effort of creative assimilation: on one side, of a tuning of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a> to traditional modes of thought (never eradicated), and vice versa, and, on the other side, of absorption of Greek pagan and early Patristic thought into this developing Ethiopian-Christian synthesis. As a consequence, the moral reflection of religious inspiration is prevalent, and the use of narrative, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable" title="Parable">parable</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apothegm" title="Apothegm" class="mw-redirect">apothegm</a> and rich imagery is preferred to the use of abstract argument. This sapiential literature consists in translations and adaptations of some Greek texts, namely of the <i>Physiolog</i> (cca. 5th century A.D.), <i>The Life and Maxims of Skendes</i> (11th century A.D.) and <i>The Book of the Wise Philosophers</i> (1510/22).</p>
<p>In the 17th century, the religious beliefs of Ethiopians were challenged by King <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susenyos_of_Ethiopia" title="Susenyos of Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect">Suseynos</a>' adoption of Catholicism, and by a subsequent presence of Jesuit missionaries. The attempt to forcefully impose Catholicism upon his constituents during Suseynos' reign inspired further development of Ethiopian philosophy during the 17th century. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zera_Yacob" title="Zera Yacob" class="mw-redirect">Zera Yacob</a> (1599–1692) is the most important exponent of this renaissance. His treatise <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatata" title="Hatata">Hatata</a></i> (1667) is a work often included in the narrow canon of universal philosophy.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="17th.E2.80.9320th_centuries">17th–20th centuries</span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_modern_philosophy">Early modern philosophy</span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17th-century_philosophy" title="17th-century philosophy">17th-century philosophy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern philosophy</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JohnLocke.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/170px-JohnLocke.png" width="170" height="219" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/255px-JohnLocke.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/340px-JohnLocke.png 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="792" /></a>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></div>
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<p>Chronologically, the early modern era of Western philosophy is usually identified with the 17th and 18th centuries, with the 18th century often being referred to as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-philosophers_73-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-philosophers-73"><span>[</span>73<span>]</span></a></sup> Modern philosophy is distinguished from its predecessors by its increasing independence from traditional authorities such as the Church, academia, and Aristotelianism;<sup id="cite_ref-philosophical8_74-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-philosophical8-74"><span>[</span>74<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-approaching_75-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-approaching-75"><span>[</span>75<span>]</span></a></sup> a new focus on the foundations of knowledge and metaphysical system-building;<sup id="cite_ref-epistemology_76-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-epistemology-76"><span>[</span>76<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-metaphysical_77-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-metaphysical-77"><span>[</span>77<span>]</span></a></sup> and the emergence of modern physics out of natural philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-independently_78-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-independently-78"><span>[</span>78<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Other central topics of philosophy in this period include the nature of the mind and its relation to the body, the implications of the new natural sciences for traditional theological topics such as free will and God, and the emergence of a secular basis for moral and political philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-philosophy9_79-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-philosophy9-79"><span>[</span>79<span>]</span></a></sup> These trends first distinctively coalesce in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>'s call for a new, empirical program for expanding knowledge, and soon found massively influential form in the mechanical physics and rationalist metaphysics of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-philosophical10_80-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-philosophical10-80"><span>[</span>80<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> was the first to apply this methodology systematically to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> and is the originator of modern political philosophy, including the modern theory of a "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy11_81-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy11-81"><span>[</span>81<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_82-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-82"><span>[</span>82<span>]</span></a></sup> The academic canon of early modern philosophy generally includes <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes" title="Descartes" class="mw-redirect">Descartes</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinoza" title="Spinoza" class="mw-redirect">Spinoza</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-philosophical12_83-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-philosophical12-83"><span>[</span>83<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-traditional_84-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-traditional-84"><span>[</span>84<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-philosophical13_85-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-philosophical13-85"><span>[</span>85<span>]</span></a></sup> though influential contributions to philosophy were made by many thinkers in this period, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_d%27Alembert" title="Jean d'Alembert" class="mw-redirect">Jean d'Alembert</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> was a seminal figure in initiating reaction against the Enlightenment. The approximate end of the early modern period is most often identified with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>'s systematic attempt to limit metaphysics, justify scientific knowledge, and reconcile both of these with morality and freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-rutherford_86-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-rutherford-86"><span>[</span>86<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-philosophy14_87-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-philosophy14-87"><span>[</span>87<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-philosophy15_88-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-philosophy15-88"><span>[</span>88<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="19th-century_philosophy">19th-century philosophy</span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th-century_philosophy" title="19th-century philosophy">19th-century philosophy</a></div>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></div>
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<p>Later modern philosophy is usually considered to begin after the philosophy of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> at the beginning of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Shand_89-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Shand-89"><span>[</span>89<span>]</span></a></sup> German philosophy exercised broad influence in this century, owing in part to the dominance of the German university system.<sup id="cite_ref-universities_90-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-universities-90"><span>[</span>90<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_idealist" title="German idealist" class="mw-redirect">German idealists</a>, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling</a>, transformed the work of Kant by maintaining that the world is constituted by a rational or mind-like process, and as such is entirely knowable.<sup id="cite_ref-frederick_91-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-frederick-91"><span>[</span>91<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a>'s identification of this world-constituting process as an irrational <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_to_live" title="Will to live">will to live</a> influenced later 19th- and early 20th-century thinking, such as the work of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>.</p>
<p>After Hegel's death in 1831, 19th-century philosophy largely turned against idealism in favor of varieties of philosophical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalism</a>, such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a>, the empiricism of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>, and the materialism of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>. Logic began a period of its most significant advances since the inception of the discipline, as increasing mathematical precision opened entire fields of inference to formalization in the work of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Boole" title="George Boole">George Boole</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-transformation_92-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-transformation-92"><span>[</span>92<span>]</span></a></sup> Other philosophers who initiated lines of thought that would continue to shape philosophy into the 20th century include:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Henry Sidgwick</a>, whose work in logic and ethics, respectively, provided the tools for early <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, who founded <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, who laid the groundwork for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a>.</li>
</ul>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="20th-century_and_21st-century_philosophy">20th-century and 21st-century philosophy</span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary philosophy</a></div>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></div>
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<p>Within the last century, philosophy has increasingly become a professional discipline practiced within universities, like other academic disciplines. Accordingly, it has become less general and more specialized. In the view of one prominent recent historian: "Philosophy has become a highly organized discipline, done by specialists primarily for other specialists. The number of philosophers has exploded, the volume of publication has swelled, and the subfields of serious philosophical investigation have multiplied. Not only is the broad field of philosophy today far too vast to be embraced by one mind, something similar is true even of many highly specialized subfields."<sup id="cite_ref-philosophical16_93-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-philosophical16-93"><span>[</span>93<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>In the English-speaking world, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a> became the dominant school for much of the 20th century. In the first half of the century, it was a cohesive school, shaped strongly by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a>, united by the notion that philosophical problems could and should be solved by attention to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>. The pioneering work of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> was a model for the early development of analytic philosophy, moving from a rejection of the idealism dominant in late 19th-century British philosophy to an neo-Humean empiricism, strengthened by the conceptual resources of modern mathematical logic.<sup id="cite_ref-stanfordBR_94-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-stanfordBR-94"><span>[</span>94<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-encyclopedia17_95-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-encyclopedia17-95"><span>[</span>95<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-philosophers18_96-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-philosophers18-96"><span>[</span>96<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>In the latter half of the 20th century, analytic philosophy diffused into a wide variety of disparate philosophical views, only loosely united by historical lines of influence and a self-identified commitment to clarity and rigor. The post-war transformation of the analytic program led in two broad directions: on one hand, an interest in ordinary language as a way of avoiding or redescribing traditional philosophical problems, and on the other, a more thoroughgoing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">naturalism</a> that sought to dissolve the puzzles of modern philosophy via the results of the natural sciences (such as cognitive psychology and evolutionary biology). The shift in the work of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, from a view congruent with logical positivism to a therapeutic dissolution of traditional philosophy as a linguistic misunderstanding of normal forms of life, was the most influential version of the first direction in analytic philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-wittgenstein_97-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-wittgenstein-97"><span>[</span>97<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-utm_98-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-utm-98"><span>[</span>98<span>]</span></a></sup> The later work of Russell and the philosophy of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a> are influential exemplars of the naturalist approach dominant in the second half of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-contemporary_99-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-contemporary-99"><span>[</span>99<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-encyclopedia19_100-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-encyclopedia19-100"><span>[</span>100<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-uncontroversially_101-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-uncontroversially-101"><span>[</span>101<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wittgenstein20_102-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-wittgenstein20-102"><span>[</span>102<span>]</span></a></sup> But the diversity of analytic philosophy from the 1970s onward defies easy generalization: the naturalism of Quine and his epigoni was in some precincts superseded by a "new metaphysics" of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possible_worlds" title="Possible worlds" class="mw-redirect">possible worlds</a>, as in the influential work of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis" title="David Kellogg Lewis" class="mw-redirect">David Lewis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-stanford21_103-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-stanford21-103"><span>[</span>103<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-introduction_104-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-introduction-104"><span>[</span>104<span>]</span></a></sup> Recently, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">experimental philosophy</a> movement has sought to reappraise philosophical problems through social science research techniques.</p>
<p>On continental Europe, no single school or temperament enjoyed dominance. The flight of the logical positivists from central Europe during the 1930s and 1940s, however, diminished philosophical interest in natural science, and an emphasis on the humanities, broadly construed, figures prominently in what is usually called "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental philosophy</a>". 20th-century movements such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>, modern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poststructuralism" title="Poststructuralism" class="mw-redirect">poststructuralism</a> are included within this loose category. The founder of phenomenology, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>, sought to study consciousness as experienced from a first-person perspective,<sup id="cite_ref-stanford22_105-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-stanford22-105"><span>[</span>105<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-utm23_106-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-utm23-106"><span>[</span>106<span>]</span></a></sup> while <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a> drew on the ideas of Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Husserl to propose an unconventional <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential" title="Existential" class="mw-redirect">existential</a> approach to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-influential_107-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-influential-107"><span>[</span>107<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-utm24_108-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-utm24-108"><span>[</span>108<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>In the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language" title="Arabic language" class="mw-redirect">Arabic-speaking</a> world, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalist</a> philosophy became the dominant school of thought, involving philosophers such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sati%27_al-Husri" title="Sati' al-Husri">Sati' al-Husri</a>.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Major_traditions">Major traditions</span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="German_idealism">German idealism</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></div>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></div>
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<p>Forms of idealism were prevalent in philosophy from the 18th century to the early 20th century. Transcendental idealism, advocated by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, is the view that there are limits on what can be understood, since there is much that cannot be brought under the conditions of objective judgment. Kant wrote his <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> (1781–1787) in an attempt to reconcile the conflicting approaches of rationalism and empiricism, and to establish a new groundwork for studying metaphysics. Kant's intention with this work was to look at what we know and then consider what must be true about it, as a logical consequence of the <i>way</i> we know it. One major theme was that there are fundamental features of reality that escape our direct knowledge because of the natural limits of the human faculties.<sup id="cite_ref-Critique_of_Pure_Reason_109-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Critique_of_Pure_Reason-109"><span>[</span>109<span>]</span></a></sup> Although Kant held that objective knowledge of the world required the mind to impose a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_framework" title="Conceptual framework">conceptual</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorical_framework" title="Categorical framework" class="mw-redirect">categorical framework</a> on the stream of pure sensory data—a framework including space and time themselves—he maintained that <i>things-in-themselves</i> existed independently of our perceptions and judgments; he was therefore not an idealist in any simple sense. Kant's account of <i>things-in-themselves</i> is both controversial and highly complex. Continuing his work, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_von_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling" class="mw-redirect">Friedrich Schelling</a> dispensed with belief in the independent existence of the world, and created a thoroughgoing idealist philosophy.</p>
<p>The most notable work of this <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a> was <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a>'s <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="Phenomenology of Spirit" class="mw-redirect">Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i>, of 1807. Hegel admitted his ideas were not new, but that all the previous philosophies had been incomplete. His goal was to correctly finish their job. Hegel asserts that the twin aims of philosophy are to account for the contradictions apparent in human experience (which arise, for instance, out of the supposed contradictions between "being" and "not being"), and also simultaneously to resolve and preserve these contradictions by showing their compatibility at a higher level of examination ("being" and "not being" are resolved with "becoming"). This program of acceptance and reconciliation of contradictions is known as the "Hegelian <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>". Philosophers influenced by Hegel include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Andreas_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach" class="mw-redirect">Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach</a>, who coined the term projection as pertaining to our inability to recognize anything in the external world without projecting qualities of ourselves upon those things; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>; and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British idealists</a>, notably <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._H._Green" title="T. H. Green" class="mw-redirect">T. H. Green</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._M._E._McTaggart" title="J. M. E. McTaggart">J. M. E. McTaggart</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._H._Bradley" title="F. H. Bradley">F. H. Bradley</a>.</p>
<p>Few 20th-century philosophers have embraced idealism. However, quite a few have embraced Hegelian dialectic. Immanuel Kant's "Copernican Turn" also remains an important philosophical concept today.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></div>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></div>
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<p>Pragmatism was founded in the spirit of finding a scientific concept of truth that does not depend on personal insight (revelation) or reference to some metaphysical realm. The meaning or purport of a statement should be judged by the effect its acceptance would have on practice. Truth is that opinion which inquiry taken far enough would ultimately reach.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-110"><span>[</span>110<span>]</span></a></sup> For Charles Sanders Peirce these were principles of the inquirer's self-regulation, implied by the idea and hope that inquiry is not generally fruitless. The details of how these principles should be interpreted have been subject to discussion since Peirce first conceived them. Peirce's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatic_maxim" title="Pragmatic maxim">maxim of pragmatism</a> is as follows: "Consider what effects, which might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then, our conception of these effects is the whole of our conception of the object."<sup id="cite_ref-paragraphs_111-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-paragraphs-111"><span>[</span>111<span>]</span></a></sup> Like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern" title="Postmodern" class="mw-redirect">postmodern</a> neo-pragmatist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a>, many are convinced that pragmatism asserts that the truth of beliefs does not consist in their correspondence with reality, but in their usefulness and efficacy.<sup id="cite_ref-Rorty_112-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Rorty-112"><span>[</span>112<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>The late 19th-century <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American philosophers</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> were its co-founders, and it was later developed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalism</a>. Since the usefulness of any belief at any time might be contingent on circumstance, Peirce and James conceptualised final truth as something only established by the future, final settlement of all opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-Putnam_113-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Putnam-113"><span>[</span>113<span>]</span></a></sup> Critics have accused pragmatism falling victim to a simple fallacy: because something that is true proves useful, that usefulness is the basis for its truth.<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_114-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Pratt-114"><span>[</span>114<span>]</span></a></sup> Thinkers in the pragmatist tradition have included John Dewey, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a>, Quine and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._I._Lewis" title="C. I. Lewis" class="mw-redirect">C. I. Lewis</a>. Pragmatism has more recently been taken in new directions by Richard Rorty, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lachs" title="John Lachs">John Lachs</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Phenomenology">Phenomenology</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology (philosophy)</a></div>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></div>
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<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>'s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a> was an ambitious attempt to lay the foundations for an account of the structure of conscious experience in general.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref-1_115-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Ref-1-115"><span>[</span>115<span>]</span></a></sup> An important part of Husserl's phenomenological project was to show that all conscious acts are directed at or about objective content, a feature that Husserl called <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">intentionality</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dreyfus_116-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Dreyfus-116"><span>[</span>116<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>In the first part of his two-volume work, the <i>Logical Investigations</i> (1901), he launched an extended attack on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologism" title="Psychologism">psychologism</a>. In the second part, he began to develop the technique of <i>descriptive phenomenology</i>, with the aim of showing how objective judgments are grounded in conscious experience—not, however, in the first-person experience of particular individuals, but in the properties essential to any experiences of the kind in question.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref-1_115-1" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Ref-1-115"><span>[</span>115<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>He also attempted to identify the essential properties of any act of meaning. He developed the method further in <i>Ideas</i> (1913) as <i>transcendental phenomenology</i>, proposing to ground actual experience, and thus all fields of human knowledge, in the structure of consciousness of an ideal, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendence_(philosophy)" title="Transcendence (philosophy)">transcendental</a>, ego. Later, he attempted to reconcile his transcendental standpoint with an acknowledgement of the intersubjective <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-world" title="Life-world" class="mw-redirect">life-world</a> in which real individual subjects interact. Husserl published only a few works in his lifetime, which treat phenomenology mainly in abstract methodological terms; but he left an enormous quantity of unpublished concrete analyses.</p>
<p>Husserl's work was immediately influential in Germany, with the foundation of phenomenological schools in Munich and Göttingen. Phenomenology later achieved international fame through the work of such philosophers as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a> (formerly Husserl's research assistant), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>. Through the work of Heidegger and Sartre, Husserl's focus on subjective experience influenced aspects of existentialism.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Existentialism">Existentialism</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></div>
<p>Existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of late 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences,<sup id="cite_ref-existentialism_117-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-existentialism-117"><span>[</span>117<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-philosophy25_118-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-philosophy25-118"><span>[</span>118<span>]</span></a></sup> shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual.<sup id="cite_ref-existentialism26_119-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-existentialism26-119"><span>[</span>119<span>]</span></a></sup> In existentialism, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential attitude", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world.<sup id="cite_ref-existentialism27_120-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-existentialism27-120"><span>[</span>120<span>]</span></a></sup> Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophy, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.<sup id="cite_ref-existentialism28_121-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-existentialism28-121"><span>[</span>121<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-existentialism29_122-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-existentialism29-122"><span>[</span>122<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></div>
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<p>Although they did not use the term, the 19th-century philosophers <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> are widely regarded as the fathers of existentialism. Their influence, however, has extended beyond existentialist thought.<sup id="cite_ref-kierkegaard_123-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-kierkegaard-123"><span>[</span>123<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bob_124-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Bob-124"><span>[</span>124<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-existentialists_125-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-existentialists-125"><span>[</span>125<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>The main target of Kierkegaard's writings was the idealist philosophical system of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegel" title="Hegel" class="mw-redirect">Hegel</a> which, he thought, ignored or excluded the inner subjective life of living human beings. Kierkegaard, conversely, held that "truth is subjectivity", arguing that what is most important to an actual human being are questions dealing with an individual's inner relationship to existence. In particular, Kierkegaard, a Christian, believed that the truth of religious faith was a subjective question, and one to be wrestled with passionately.<sup id="cite_ref-Fear_and_Trembling_126-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Fear_and_Trembling-126"><span>[</span>126<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_127-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript-127"><span>[</span>127<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Although Kierkegaard and Nietzsche were among his influences, the extent to which the German philosopher <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a> should be considered an existentialist is debatable. In <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> he presented a method of rooting philosophical explanations in human existence (<i>Dasein</i>) to be analysed in terms of existential categories (<i>existentiale</i>); and this has led many commentators to treat him as an important figure in the existentialist movement. However, in <i>The Letter on Humanism</i>, Heidegger explicitly rejected the existentialism of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>.</p>
<p>Sartre became the best-known proponent of existentialism, exploring it not only in theoretical works such as <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i>, but also in plays and novels. Sartre, along with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a>, represented an avowedly atheistic branch of existentialism, which is now more closely associated with their ideas of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nausea_(novel)" title="Nausea (novel)">nausea</a>, contingency, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_faith#Ethics.2C_phenomenology.2C_existentialism" title="Bad faith">bad faith</a>, and the absurd than with Kierkegaard's spiritual angst. Nevertheless, the focus on the individual human being, responsible before the universe for the authenticity of his or her existence, is common to all these thinkers.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Structuralism_and_post-structuralism">Structuralism and post-structuralism</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></div>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a></div>
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<p>Inaugurated by the linguist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>, structuralism sought to clarify systems of signs through analyzing the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourses</a> they both limit and make possible. Saussure conceived of the sign as being delimited by all the other signs in the system, and ideas as being incapable of existence prior to linguistic structure, which articulates thought. This led continental thought away from humanism, and toward what was termed the decentering of man: language is no longer spoken by man to express a true inner self, but language speaks man.</p>
<p>Structuralism sought the province of a hard science, but its positivism soon came under fire by poststructuralism, a wide field of thinkers, some of whom were once themselves structuralists, but later came to criticize it. Structuralists believed they could analyze systems from an external, objective standing, for example, but the poststructuralists argued that this is incorrect, that one cannot transcend structures and thus analysis is itself determined by what it examines, while the distinction between the signifier and signified was treated as crystalline by structuralists, poststructuralists asserted that every attempt to grasp the signified results in more signifiers, so meaning is always in a state of being deferred, making an ultimate interpretation impossible.</p>
<p>Structuralism came to dominate continental philosophy throughout the 1960s and early 1970s, encompassing thinkers as diverse as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Roland Barthes</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a>. Post-structuralism came to predominate over the 1970s onwards, including thinkers such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a> and even <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Roland Barthes</a>; it incorporated a critique of structuralism's limitations.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Thomism">Thomism</span></h3>
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<td class="mbox-text"><span class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>possibly contains <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>. <span class="hide-when-compact">Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philosophy&amp;action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <small><i>(May 2015)</i></small></span></td>
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<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></div>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></div>
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<p>Largely Aristotelian in its approach and content, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a> is a philosophical tradition that follows the writings of Thomas Aquinas. His work has been read, studied, and disputed since the 13th century, especially by Roman Catholics. However, Aquinas has enjoyed a revived interest since the late 19th century, among both atheists (like Philippa Foot) and theists (like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe" class="mw-redirect">Elizabeth Anscombe</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-128"><span>[</span>128<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Thomist philosophers tend to be <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalists</a> in epistemology, as well as metaphysical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realists</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethicists</a>. Human beings are rational animals whose good can be known by reason and pursued by the will. With regard to the soul, Thomists (like Aristotle) argue that soul or <i>psyche</i> is real and immaterial but inseparable from matter in organisms. Soul is the form of the body. Thomists accept all four of Aristotle's causes as natural, including teleological or final causes. In this way, though Aquinas argued that whatever is in the intellect begins in the senses, natural teleology can be discerned with the senses and abstracted from nature through induction.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-129"><span>[</span>129<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Contemporary Thomism contains a diversity of philosophical styles, from Neo-Scholasticism to Existential Thomism.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-130"><span>[</span>130<span>]</span></a></sup> The so-called new <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Law" title="Natural Law" class="mw-redirect">natural lawyers</a> like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germain_Grisez" title="Germain Grisez">Germain Grisez</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_P._George" title="Robert P. George">Robert P. George</a> have applied Thomistic legal principles to contemporary ethical debates, while cognitive neuroscientist Walter Freeman proposes that Thomism is the philosophical system explaining cognition that is most compatible with neurodynamics, in a 2008 article in the journal Mind and Matter entitled "Nonlinear Brain Dynamics and Intention According to Aquinas." So-called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytical Thomism</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Joseph_Haldane" title="John Joseph Haldane">John Haldane</a> and others encourages dialogue between analytic philosophy and broadly Aristotelian philosophy of mind, psychology, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">hylomorphic</a> metaphysics.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-131"><span>[</span>131<span>]</span></a></sup> Other modern or contemporary Thomists include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleonore_Stump" title="Eleonore Stump">Eleonore Stump</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">John Finnis</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="The_analytic_tradition">The analytic tradition</span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></div>
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<p>The term <i>analytic philosophy</i> roughly designates a group of philosophical methods that stress detailed argumentation, attention to semantics, use of classical logic and non-classical logics and clarity of meaning above all other criteria. Some have held that philosophical problems arise through misuse of language or because of misunderstandings of the logic of our language, while some maintain that there are genuine philosophical problems and that philosophy is continuous with science. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a> in his <i>Origins of Analytical Philosophy</i> makes the case for counting <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>'s <i>The Foundations of Arithmetic</i> as the first analytic work, on the grounds that in that book Frege took the linguistic turn, analyzing philosophical problems through language. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.E._Moore" title="G.E. Moore" class="mw-redirect">G.E. Moore</a> are also often counted as founders of analytic philosophy, beginning with their rejection of British idealism, their defense of realism and the emphasis they laid on the legitimacy of analysis.</p>
<p>Russell's classic works <i>The Principles of Mathematics</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-russell_132-0" class="reference"><a href="Philosophy#cite_note-russell-132"><span>[</span>132<span>]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i> with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>, aside from greatly promoting the use of mathematical logic in philosophy, set the ground for much of the research program in the early stages of the analytic tradition, emphasizing such problems as: the reference of proper names, whether 'existence' is a property, the nature of propositions, the analysis of definite descriptions, the discussions on the foundations of mathematics; as well as exploring issues of ontological commitment and even metaphysical problems regarding time, the nature of matter, mind, persistence and change, which Russell tackled often with the aid of mathematical logic. Russell and Moore's philosophy, in the beginning of the 20th century, developed as a critique of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegel" title="Hegel" class="mw-redirect">Hegel</a> and his British followers in particular, and of grand systems of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speculative_philosophy" title="Speculative philosophy" class="mw-redirect">speculative philosophy</a> in general, though by no means all analytic philosophers reject the philosophy of Hegel (see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a>) nor speculative philosophy. Some schools in the group include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">ordinary language</a> both markedly influenced by Russell and Wittgenstein's development of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_Atomism" title="Logical Atomism" class="mw-redirect">Logical Atomism</a> the former positively and the latter negatively.</p>
<p>In 1921, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, who studied under Russell at Cambridge, published his <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i>, which gave a rigidly "logical" account of linguistic and philosophical issues. At the time, he understood most of the problems of philosophy as mere puzzles of language, which could be solved by investigating and then minding the logical structure of language. Years later, he reversed a number of the positions he set out in the <i>Tractatus</i>, in for example his second major work, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> (1953). <i>Investigations</i> was influential in the development of "ordinary language philosophy," which was promoted by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.L._Austin" title="J.L. Austin" class="mw-redirect">J.L. Austin</a>, and a few others.</p>
<p>In the United States, meanwhile, the philosophy of Quine was having a major influence, with the paper <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a>. In that paper Quine criticizes the distinction between analytic and synthetic statements, arguing that a clear conception of analyticity is unattainable. He argued for holism, the thesis that language, including scientific language, is a set of interconnected sentences, none of which can be verified on its own, rather, the sentences in the language depend on each other for their meaning and truth conditions. A consequence of Quine's approach is that language as a whole has only a thin relation to experience. Some sentences that refer directly to experience might be modified by sense impressions, but as the whole of language is theory-laden, for the whole language to be modified, more than this is required. However, most of the linguistic structure can in principle be revised, even logic, in order to better model the world.</p>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></div>
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<p>Notable students of Quine include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a>. The former devised a program for giving a semantics to natural language and thereby answer the philosophical conundrum "what is meaning?". A crucial part of the program was the use of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a>'s semantic theory of truth. Dummett, among others, argued that truth conditions should be dispensed with in the theory of meaning, and replaced by assertability conditions. Some propositions, on this view, are neither true nor false, and thus such a theory of meaning entails a rejection of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_excluded_middle" title="Law of the excluded middle" class="mw-redirect">law of the excluded middle</a>. This, for Dummett, entails antirealism, as Russell himself pointed out in his <i>An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth</i>.</p>
<p>By the 1970s there was a renewed interest in many traditional philosophical problems by the younger generations of analytic philosophers. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis" title="David Kellogg Lewis" class="mw-redirect">David Lewis</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a> and others took an interest in traditional metaphysical problems, which they began exploring by the use of logic and philosophy of language. Among those problems some distinguished ones were: free will, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialism</a>, the nature of personal identity, identity over time, the nature of the mind, the nature of causal laws, space-time, the properties of material beings, modality, etc. In those universities where analytic philosophy has spread, these problems are still being discussed passionately. Analytic philosophers are also interested in the methodology of analytic philosophy itself, with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a>, Wykeham Professor of Logic at Oxford, publishing recently a book entitled <i>The Philosophy of Philosophy</i>. Some influential figures in contemporary analytic philosophy are: Timothy Williamson, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis" title="David Kellogg Lewis" class="mw-redirect">David Lewis</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a>. Analytic philosophy has sometimes been accused of not contributing to the political debate or to traditional questions in aesthetics. However, with the appearance of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchy,_State_and_Utopia" title="Anarchy, State and Utopia" class="mw-redirect">Anarchy, State and Utopia</a></i> by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a>, analytic political philosophy acquired respectability. Analytic philosophers have also shown depth in their investigations of aesthetics, with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Roger Scruton</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Danto" title="Arthur Danto">Arthur Danto</a> and others developing the subject to its current shape.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Applied_philosophy">Applied philosophy</span></h2>
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<p>The ideas conceived by a society have profound repercussions on what actions the society performs. As <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Richard Weaver</a> has argued, "ideas have consequences". The study of philosophy yields applications such as those in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>—<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">applied ethics</a> in particular—and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>. The political and economic philosophies of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Zi</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Rushd" title="Ibn Rushd" class="mw-redirect">Ibn Rushd</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Taimiyyah" title="Ibn Taimiyyah" class="mw-redirect">Ibn Taimiyyah</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr." class="mw-redirect">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, and others—all of these have been used to shape and justify governments and their actions.</p>
<p>In the field of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">philosophy of education</a>, progressive education as championed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> has had a profound impact on educational practices in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> in the 20th century. Descendants of this movement include the current efforts in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_for_children" title="Philosophy for children" class="mw-redirect">philosophy for children</a>, which are part of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_education" title="Philosophy education">philosophy education</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_von_Clausewitz" title="Carl von Clausewitz">Carl von Clausewitz</a>'s political <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">philosophy of war</a> has had a profound effect on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">statecraft</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_politics" title="International politics" class="mw-redirect">international politics</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">military strategy</a> in the 20th century, especially in the years around <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Logic has become crucially important in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">computer engineering</a>.</p>
<p>Other important applications can be found in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, which aid in understanding the requisites for knowledge, sound evidence, and justified belief (important in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">decision theory</a>, and a number of other disciplines). The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> discusses the underpinnings of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> and has affected the nature of scientific investigation and argumentation. As such, philosophy has fundamental implications for science as a whole. For example, the strictly empirical approach of Skinner's behaviorism affected for decades the approach of the American psychological establishment. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">animal rights</a> examine the moral situation of humans as occupants of a world that has non-human occupants to consider also. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> can help to interpret discussions of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_arts" title="Plastic arts">plastic arts</a>, and the whole artistic dimension of life. In general, the various philosophies strive to provide practical activities with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of their fields.</p>
<p>Often philosophy is seen as an investigation into an area not sufficiently well understood to be its own branch of knowledge. For example, what were once philosophical pursuits have evolved into the modern day fields such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline of philosophy</a></div>
<div class="noprint portal tright" style="border:solid #aaa 1px;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em">
<table style="background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;max-width:175px">
<tr style="vertical-align:middle">
<td style="text-align:center"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Socrates.png" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" width="18" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></a></td>
<td style="padding:0 0.2em;vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<table class="metadata mbox-small" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-color:#f9f9f9">
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="Book icon" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/30px-Office-book.svg.png" width="30" height="30" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/45px-Office-book.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/60px-Office-book.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">
<ul style="font-weight: bold">
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book:Philosophy" title="Book:Philosophy">Book: Philosophy</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">List of important publications in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">List of years in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophy_journals" title="List of philosophy journals">List of philosophy journals</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">List of unsolved problems in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Lists of philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-philosophy-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-philosophy_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jenny Teichmann and Katherine C. Evans, <i>Philosophy: A Beginner's Guide</i> (Blackwell Publishing, 1999), p. 1: "Philosophy is a study of problems which are ultimate, abstract and very general. These problems are concerned with the nature of existence, knowledge, morality, reason and human purpose."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophical-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-philosophical_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.C._Grayling" title="A.C. Grayling" class="mw-redirect">A.C. Grayling</a> (1999). "Editor's Introduction". In A.C. Grayling, ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DyIiAQAAIAAJ"><i>Philosophy 1: A Guide through the Subject</i></a>. vol. 1. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;1. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875243-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875243-1">978-0-19-875243-1</a>. <q>The aim of philosophical inquiry is to gain insight into questions about knowledge, truth, reason, reality, meaning, mind, and value. Other human endeavors explore aspects of these same questions, not least art and literature, but it is philosophy that mounts a direct assault upon them...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Editor%27s+Introduction&amp;rft.au=A.C.+Grayling&amp;rft.btitle=Philosophy+1%3A+A+Guide+through+the+Subject&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDyIiAQAAIAAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-875243-1&amp;rft.pages=1&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Definition of "philosophy, n.". <i>Oxford English Dictionary Online</i>. June 2015. <i>Oxford University Press.</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com.ezproxy.uky.edu/view/Entry/142505?rskey=uk0M8u&amp;result=1">http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/142505?rskey=uk0M8u&amp;result=1</a> (accessed August 05, 2015): "7. The study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, and the basis and limits of human understanding; this considered as an academic discipline. (Now the usual sense.)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tufts1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-tufts1_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_Laertius" title="Diogenes Laertius" class="mw-redirect">Diogenes Laertius</a>: "Lives of Eminent Philosophers", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D1">I, 12</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>: "Tusculanae disputationes", V, 8–9</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tufts-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-tufts_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=filosofi/a"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φιλοσοφία</span></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell, Henry George</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott, Robert</a>; <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">A Greek–English Lexicon</a></i> at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseus_Project" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Online_Etymology_Dictionary-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Online_Etymology_Dictionary_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=philosophy&amp;searchmode=none">"Online Etymology Dictionary"</a>. Etymonline.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fsearch%3Dphilosophy%26searchmode%3Dnone&amp;rft.pub=Etymonline.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Webster.27s_New_World_Dictionary-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Webster.27s_New_World_Dictionary_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The definition of philosophy is: "1. orig., love of, or the search for, wisdom or knowledge 2. theory or logical analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought, knowledge, and the nature of the universe". <cite class="citation book"><i>Webster's New World Dictionary</i> (Second College ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Webster%27s+New+World+Dictionary&amp;rft.edition=Second+College&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strong's Greek Dictionary 5385, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://biblehub.com/greek/5385.htm">http://biblehub.com/greek/5385.htm</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-oed.com-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-oed.com_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-oed.com_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/142505?rskey=WbBDMG&amp;result=1&amp;isAdvanced=false#eid">"Home&#160;: Oxford English Dictionary"</a>. <i>oed.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Home+%3A+Oxford+English+Dictionary&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fview%2FEntry%2F142505%3Frskey%3DWbBDMG%26result%3D1%26isAdvanced%3Dfalse%23eid&amp;rft.jtitle=oed.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-justification-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-justification_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Quinton" title="Anthony Quinton">Anthony Quinton</a> (1995). "The ethics of philosophical practice". In T. Honderich, ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sI4YAAAAIAAJ"><i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;666. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866132-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866132-0">978-0-19-866132-0</a>. <q>Philosophy is rationally critical thinking, of a more or less <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/systematic" class="extiw" title="wikt:systematic">systematic</a> kind about the general nature of the world (metaphysics or theory of existence), the justification of belief (epistemology or theory of knowledge), and the conduct of life (ethics or theory of value). Each of the three elements in this list has a non-philosophical counterpart, from which it is distinguished by its explicitly rational and critical way of proceeding and by its systematic nature. Everyone has some general conception of the nature of the world in which they live and of their place in it. Metaphysics replaces the unargued assumptions embodied in such a conception with a rational and organized body of beliefs about the world as a whole. Everyone has occasion to doubt and question beliefs, their own or those of others, with more or less success and without any theory of what they are doing. Epistemology seeks by argument to make explicit the rules of correct belief formation. Everyone governs their conduct by directing it to desired or valued ends. Ethics, or moral philosophy, in its most inclusive sense, seeks to articulate, in rationally systematic form, the rules or principles involved.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=The+ethics+of+philosophical+practice&amp;rft.au=Anthony+Quinton&amp;rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsI4YAAAAIAAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-866132-0&amp;rft.pages=666&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=philosophy">"Online Etymology Dictionary"</a>. <i>etymonline.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dphilosophy&amp;rft.jtitle=etymonline.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Webster-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Webster_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/philosophy">"Philosophy"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster on-line dictionary</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fphilosophy&amp;rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster+on-line+dictionary&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kenney, Anthony. <i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i>. Oxford. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958988-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958988-3">978-0-19-958988-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Anthony&amp;rft.aulast=Kenney&amp;rft.btitle=A+New+History+of+Western+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-958988-3&amp;rft.pub=Oxford&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-nyu-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-nyu_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophy.fas.nyu.edu/page/undergrad">"Undergraduate Program | Department of Philosophy | NYU"</a>. Philosophy.fas.nyu.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Undergraduate+Program+%26%23124%3B+Department+of+Philosophy+%26%23124%3B+NYU&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilosophy.fas.nyu.edu%2Fpage%2Fundergrad&amp;rft.pub=Philosophy.fas.nyu.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Aesthetics-_definition-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Aesthetics-_definition_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aesthetics">"Aesthetics- definition"</a>. Merriam-Webster Dictionary<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Aesthetics-+definition&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Faesthetics&amp;rft.pub=Merriam-Webster+Dictionary&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Webster.27s_Revised_Unabridged_Dictionary-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Webster.27s_Revised_Unabridged_Dictionary_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">G &amp; C. Merriam Co.</a> (1913). Noah Porter, eds. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://machaut.uchicago.edu/?resource=Webster%27s&amp;word=epistemology&amp;use1913=on"><i>Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary</i></a> (1913 ed.). G &amp; C. Merriam Co. p.&#160;501<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2012</span>. <q>E*pis`te*mol"o*gy (?), n. [Gr. knowledge + -logy.] The theory or science of the method or grounds of knowledge.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=G+%26+C.+Merriam+Co.&amp;rft.btitle=Webster%27s+Revised+Unabridged+Dictionary&amp;rft.date=1913&amp;rft.edition=1913&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmachaut.uchicago.edu%2F%3Fresource%3DWebster%2527s%26word%3Depistemology%26use1913%3Don&amp;rft.pages=501&amp;rft.pub=G+%26+C.+Merriam+Co.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-The_Principles_of_Philosophy_.28IX.29-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-The_Principles_of_Philosophy_.28IX.29_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Descartes, René (1644). <i>The Principles of Philosophy (IX)</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&amp;rft.aulast=Descartes&amp;rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+Philosophy+%28IX%29&amp;rft.date=1644&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Idealism-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Idealism_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_idealism.html">"Idealism"</a>. philosophybasics.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Idealism&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.philosophybasics.com%2Fbranch_idealism.html&amp;rft.pub=philosophybasics.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-stanford-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-stanford_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodriguez-Pereyra, Gonzalo (2008). "Nominalism in Metaphysics", <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2008/entries/nominalism-metaphysics/">link</a>)</span>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p><span class="reference-text">"The word 'Nominalism', as used by contemporary philosophers in the Anglo-American tradition, is ambiguous. In one sense, its most traditional sense deriving from the Middle Ages, it implies the rejection of universals. In another, more modern but equally entrenched sense, it implies the rejection of abstract objects"</span></p>
</blockquote>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-conceptualism-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-conceptualism_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strawson, P. F. "Conceptualism." Universals, concepts and qualities: new essays on the meaning of predicates. Ashgate Publishing, 2006.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Leviathan-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Leviathan_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hobbes, Thomas (1985). <i>Leviathan</i>. Penguin Classics.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Hobbes%2C+Thomas&amp;rft.btitle=Leviathan&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-The_Selected_Political_Writings_of_John_Locke-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-The_Selected_Political_Writings_of_John_Locke_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Sigmund, Paul E. (2005). <i>The Selected Political Writings of John Locke</i>. Norton. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-96451-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-96451-6">978-0-393-96451-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Sigmund%2C+Paul+E.&amp;rft.btitle=The+Selected+Political+Writings+of+John+Locke&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-393-96451-6&amp;rft.pub=Norton&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aesthetic">"Merriam-Webster.com"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster.com&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Faesthetic&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aesthetics">Definition 1 of <i>aesthetics</i></a> from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merriam-Webster_Dictionary" title="Merriam-Webster Dictionary" class="mw-redirect">Merriam-Webster Dictionary</a> Online.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zangwill, Nick. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aesthetic-judgment/">Aesthetic Judgment</a>", <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>, 02-28-2003/10-22-2007. Retrieved 24 July 2008.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kelly (1998) p. ix</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arlisna.org/artdoc/vol18/iss2/01.pdf">Review</a> by Tom Riedel (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regis_University" title="Regis University">Regis University</a>)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/aesthetic">"aesthetic – definition of aesthetic in English from the Oxford dictionary"</a>. <i>oxforddictionaries.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=aesthetic+%93+definition+of+aesthetic+in+English+from+the+Oxford+dictionary&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2Faesthetic&amp;rft.jtitle=oxforddictionaries.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-renaissance-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-renaissance_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, the multi-author Oxford History of Western Philosophy breaks the subject into eight volumes: ancient, medieval, Renaissance, two volumes covering the period 1600–1750, two volumes covering 1750–1945, and one volume on analytic philosophy since 1945. Anthony Kenny's <i>New History of Western Philosophy</i> is divided in four volumes: ancient, medieval, early modern (1500–1830), and later modern (1830 to the present). The more technical Cambridge History of Philosophy divides the topic into nine periods: Greek philosophy to Aristotle, Hellenistic philosophy, later Greek and early medieval, later medieval, Renaissance, three volumes for the 17th–19th centuries, and a final volume on 1870–1945.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-literature-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-literature_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Lichtheim, <i>Ancient Egyptian Literature</i>, p.61</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-grimal-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-grimal_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grimal, p.79</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-mesopotamia-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-mesopotamia_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i> <b>101</b> (1), p. 35-47.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-mesopotamia2-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-mesopotamia2_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i> <b>101</b> (1), p. 35-47 [43].</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-pe-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-pe_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-pe_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Ebrey, Patricia (2010). <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge University Press. p.&#160;42.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Patricia&amp;rft.aulast=Ebrey&amp;rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Illustrated+History+of+China&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=42&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-juergensmeyer-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-juergensmeyer_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Juergensmeyer, Mark (2005). <i>Religion in global civil society</i>. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;70. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518835-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518835-6">978-0-19-518835-6</a>. <q>...humanist philosophies such as Confucianism, which do not share a belief in divine law and do not exalt faithfulness to a higher law as a manifestation of divine will</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Mark&amp;rft.aulast=Juergensmeyer&amp;rft.btitle=Religion+in+global+civil+society&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-518835-6&amp;rft.pages=70&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-craig2-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-craig2_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-craig2_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Philosophy#CITEREFCraig1998">Craig 1998</a>, p.&#160;536.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-process-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-process_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Process and Reality</i> p. 39</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusculan_Disputations" title="Tusculan Disputations" class="mw-redirect">Tusculan Disputations</a></i>, 5.3.8–9 = <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus" title="Heraclides Ponticus">Heraclides Ponticus</a> fr. 88 Wehrli, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a> 1.12, 8.8, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a> <i>VP</i> 58. Burkert attempted to discredit this ancient tradition, but it has been defended by C.J. De Vogel, <i>Pythagoras and Early Pythagoreanism</i> (1966), pp. 97–102, and C. Riedweg, <i>Pythagoras: His Life, Teaching, And Influence</i> (2005), p. 92.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-principal-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-principal_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">p 22, <i>The Principal Upanisads</i>, Harper Collins, 1994</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-dictionary-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-dictionary_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Oxford Dictionary of World Religions</i>, p. 259</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Sarva-Darsana_Sangraha_of_Madhava_Acharya:_Review_of_Different_Systems_of_Hindu_Philosophy-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Sarva-Darsana_Sangraha_of_Madhava_Acharya:_Review_of_Different_Systems_of_Hindu_Philosophy_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Byles_Cowell" title="Edward Byles Cowell">Cowell, E.B.</a>; Gough, A.E. (1882). <i>Sarva-Darsana Sangraha of Madhava Acharya: Review of Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy</i>. New Delhi: Indian Books Centre/Sri Satguru Publications. p.&#160;xii. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7030-875-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7030-875-1">978-81-7030-875-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=E.B.&amp;rft.au=Gough%2C+A.E.&amp;rft.aulast=Cowell&amp;rft.btitle=Sarva-Darsana+Sangraha+of+Madhava+Acharya%3A+Review+of+Different+Systems+of+Hindu+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1882&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-81-7030-875-1&amp;rft.pages=xii&amp;rft.place=New+Delhi&amp;rft.pub=Indian+Books+Centre%2FSri+Satguru+Publications&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Jain, Vijay K. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zLmx9bvtglkC"><i>Acharya Umasvami's Tattvarthsutra</i></a>. p.&#160;5. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788190363921" title="Special:BookSources/9788190363921">9788190363921</a>. <q>Non-copyright</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Vijay+K.&amp;rft.aulast=Jain&amp;rft.btitle=Acharya+Umasvami%27s+Tattvarthsutra&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzLmx9bvtglkC&amp;rft.isbn=9788190363921&amp;rft.pages=5&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-apte-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-apte_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Apte, p. 497.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Blackburn-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Blackburn_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Blackburn, Simon (1994). <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Blackburn%2C+Simon&amp;rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-encyclopedia-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-encyclopedia_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederick Copleston, <i>A History of Philosophy, Volume II: From Augustine to Scotus</i> (Burns &amp; Oates, 1950), p. 1, dates medieval philosophy proper from the Carolingian Renaissance in the eighth century to the end of the fourteenth century, though he includes <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine" title="Augustine" class="mw-redirect">Augustine</a> and the Patristic fathers as precursors. Desmond Henry, in Paul Edwards (ed.), <i>The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Macmillan, 1967), vol. 5, pp. 252–257, starts with Augustine and ends with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Nicholas of Oresme</a> in the late fourteenth century. David Luscombe, <i>Medieval Thought</i> (Oxford University Press, 1997), dates medieval philosophy from the conversion of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_I" title="Constantine I" class="mw-redirect">Constantine</a> in 312 to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> in the 1520s. Christopher Hughes, in A.C. Grayling (ed.), <i>Philosophy 2: Further through the Subject</i> (Oxford University Press, 1998), covers philosophers from Augustine to Ockham. Jorge J.E. Gracia, in Nicholas Bunnin and E.P. Tsui-James (eds.), <i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i>, 2nd ed. (Blackwell, 2003), p. 620, identifies medieval philosophy as running from Augustine to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_St._Thomas" title="John of St. Thomas">John of St. Thomas</a> in the seventeenth century. Anthony Kenny, <i>A New History of Western Philosophy, Volume II: Medieval Philosophy</i> (Oxford University Press, 2005), begins with Augustine and ends with the Lateran Council of 1512.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-gracia-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-gracia_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gracia, p. 1</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-contemporaries-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-contemporaries_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Schmitt and Quentin Skinner (eds.), <i>The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy</i> (Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 5, loosely define the period as extending "from the age of Ockham to the revisionary work of Bacon, Descartes and their contemporaries."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophies-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-philosophies_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederick Copleston, <i>A History of Philosophy, Volume III: From Ockham to Suarez</i> (The Newman Press, 1953) p. 18: "When one looks at Renaissance philosophy … one is faced at first sight with a rather bewildering assortment of philosophies."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-renaissance3-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-renaissance3_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brian Copenhaver and Charles Schmitt, <i>Renaissance Philosophy</i> (Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 4: "one may identify the hallmark of Renaissance philosophy as an accelerated and enlarged interest, stimulated by newly available texts, in primary sources of Greek and Roman thought that were previously unknown or partially known or little read."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-transmission-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-transmission_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jorge J.E. Gracia in Nicholas Bunnin and E.P. Tsui-James (eds.), <i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i>, 2nd ed. (Blackwell, 2002), p. 621: "the humanists … restored man to the centre of attention and channeled their efforts to the recovery and transmission of classical learning, particularly in the philosophy of Plato."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-naturalistic-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-naturalistic_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Copleston, <i>ibid.</i>: "The bulk of Renaissance thinkers, scholars and scientists were, of course, Christians … but none the less the classical revival … helped to bring to the fore a conception of autonomous man or an idea of the development of the human personality, which, though generally Christian, was more 'naturalistic' and less ascetic than the mediaeval conception."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-intellectual-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-intellectual_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles B. Schmitt and Quentin Skinner (eds.), <i>The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy</i>, pp. 61 and 63: "From Petrarch the early humanists learnt their conviction that the revival of <i>humanae literae</i> was only the first step in a greater intellectual renewal" […] "the very conception of philosophy was changing because its chief object was now man—man was at centre of every inquiry".</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Cassirer; Kristeller; Randall, eds. (1948). "Introduction". <i>The Renaissance Philosophy of Man</i>. University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Introduction&amp;rft.btitle=The+Renaissance+Philosophy+of+Man&amp;rft.date=1948&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-renaissance4-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-renaissance4_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Copenhaver and Schmitt, <i>Renaissance Philosophy</i>, pp. 285–328.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophicae-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-philosophicae_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pico Della Mirandola, Conclusiones philosophicae, cabalisticae et theologicae; Giordano Bruno, De Magia</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-scepticism-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-scepticism_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Popkin, <i>The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle</i> (Oxford University Press, 2003).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-copleston-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-copleston_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Copleston, pp. 228–229.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-reformation-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-reformation_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenny, <i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i>, vol. 3 (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 8: "The Lutheran Reformation […] gave new impetus to the sceptical trend."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Machiavelli appears as the first modern political thinker" <cite class="citation book">Williams, Garrath. "Hobbes: Moral and Political Philosophy". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/"><i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Hobbes%3A+Moral+and+Political+Philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Garrath&amp;rft.aulast=Williams&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fhobmoral%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>. "Machiavelli ought not really to be classified as either purely an "ancient" or a "modern," but instead deserves to be located in the interstices between the two." <cite class="citation book">Nederman, Cary. "Niccolò Machiavelli". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/machiavelli/"><i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Niccol%C3%B2+Machiavelli&amp;rft.aufirst=Cary&amp;rft.aulast=Nederman&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmachiavelli%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-renaissance5-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-renaissance5_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Copenhaver and Schmitt, <i>Renaissance Philosophy</i>, pp. 274–284.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-renaissance6-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-renaissance6_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schmitt and Skinner, <i>The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy</i>, pp. 430–452.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Japanese_Philosophy-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Japanese_Philosophy_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Blocker, H. Gene; Starling, Christopher L. (2001). <i>Japanese Philosophy</i>. SUNY Press. p.&#160;64.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=H.+Gene&amp;rft.aulast=Blocker&amp;rft.au=Starling%2C+Christopher+L.&amp;rft.btitle=Japanese+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=64&amp;rft.pub=SUNY+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-huang5-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-huang5_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-huang5_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Philosophy#CITEREFHuang1999">Huang 1999</a>, p.&#160;5.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-CSB-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-CSB_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-CSB_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Philosophy#CITEREFChan2002">Chan 2002</a>, p.&#160;460.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-banarsidass-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-banarsidass_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Sharma, Peri Sarveswara (1980). <i>Anthology of Kumārilabhaṭṭa's Works</i>. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass. p.&#160;5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Peri+Sarveswara&amp;rft.aulast=Sharma&amp;rft.btitle=Anthology+of+Kum%C4%81rilabha%E1%B9+%E1%B9+a%27s+Works&amp;rft.date=1980&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=5&amp;rft.pub=Delhi%2C+Motilal+Banarsidass&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-google-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-google_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC&amp;pg=PR7">"Consciousness in Advaita Vedānta ,"</a> By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120812512" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Gandhi_And_Mahayana_Buddhism-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Gandhi_And_Mahayana_Buddhism_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/GB.htm">"Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism"</a>. Class.uidaho.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Gandhi+And+Mahayana+Buddhism&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.class.uidaho.edu%2Fngier%2FGB.htm&amp;rft.pub=Class.uidaho.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-stanford7-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-stanford7_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wainwright, William, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2010/entries/concepts-god/">"Concepts of God"</a>, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00855lt">"In Our Time: Existence"</a>. bbcnews.com. 8 November 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=In+Our+Time%3A+Existence&amp;rft.date=2007-11-08&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fb00855lt&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Mann1491-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Mann1491_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mann, Charles C. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1491:_New_Revelations_of_the_Americas_Before_Columbus" title="1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus">1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus</a></i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. p, 121.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-iepMaffie-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-iepMaffie_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-iepMaffie_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maffie, James. "Aztec Philosophy." <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aztec.htm">[1]</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophers-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-philosophers_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald Rutherford, <i>The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. xiii, defines its subject thus: "what has come to be known as "early modern philosophy"—roughly, philosophy spanning the period between the end of the sixteenth century and the end of the eighteenth century, or, in terms of figures, Montaigne through Kant." <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Steven Nadler</a>, <i>A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i> (Blackwell, 2002), p. 1, likewise identifies its subject as "the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries". Anthony Kenny, <i>The Oxford History of Western Philosophy</i> (Clarendon: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 107, introduces "early modern philosophy" as "the writings of the classical philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe".</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophical8-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-philosophical8_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Nadler, <i>A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i>, pp. 1–2: "By the seventeenth century […] it had become more common to find original philosophical minds working outside the strictures of the university—i.e., ecclesiastic—framework. […] by the end of the eighteenth century, [philosophy] was a secular enterprise."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-approaching-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-approaching_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a>, <i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i>, vol. 3 (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. xii: "To someone approaching the early modern period of philosophy from an ancient and medieval background the most striking feature of the age is the absence of Aristotle from the philosophic scene."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-epistemology-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-epistemology_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald Rutherford, <i>The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 1: "epistemology assumes a new significance in the early modern period as philosophers strive to define the conditions and limits of human knowledge."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-metaphysical-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-metaphysical_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenny, <i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i>, vol. 3, p. 211: "The period between Descartes and Hegel was the great age of metaphysical system-building."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-independently-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-independently_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenny, <i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i>, vol. 3, pp. 179–180: "the seventeenth century saw the gradual separation of the old discipline of natural philosophy into the science of physics […] [b]y the nineteenth century physics was a fully mature empirical science, operating independently of philosophy."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophy9-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-philosophy9_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenny, <i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i>, vol. 3, pp. 212–331.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophical10-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-philosophical10_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler, <i>A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i>, pp. 2–3: "Why should the early modern period in philosophy begin with Descartes and Bacon, for example, rather than with Erasmus and Montaigne? […] Suffice it to say that at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and especially with Bacon and Descartes, certain questions and concerns come to the fore—a variety of issues that motivated the inquiries and debates that would characterize much philosophical thinking for the next two centuries."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy11-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy11_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">"Hobbes: Moral and Political Philosophy". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/"><i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Hobbes%3A+Moral+and+Political+Philosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fhobmoral%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> "Hobbes is the founding father of modern political philosophy. Directly or indirectly, he has set the terms of debate about the fundamentals of political life right into our own times."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">"Contractarianism". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/contractarianism/"><i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Contractarianism&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcontractarianism%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>: "Contractarianism […] stems from the Hobbesian line of social contract thought"</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophical12-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-philosophical12_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rutherford, <i>The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i>, p. 1: "Most often this [period] has been associated with the achievements of a handful of great thinkers: the so-called 'rationalists' (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz) and 'empiricists' (Locke, Berkeley, Hume), whose inquiries culminate in Kant's 'Critical philosophy.' These canonical figures have been celebrated for the depth and rigor of their treatments of perennial philosophical questions..."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-traditional-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-traditional_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler, <i>A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i>, p. 2: "The study of early modern philosophy demands that we pay attention to a wide variety of questions and an expansive pantheon of thinkers: the traditional canonical figures (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume), to be sure, but also a large 'supporting cast'..."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophical13-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-philosophical13_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Kuklick" title="Bruce Kuklick">Bruce Kuklick</a>, "Seven Thinkers and How They Grew: Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz; Locke, Berkeley, Hume; Kant" in Rorty, Schneewind, and Skinner (eds.), <i>Philosophy in History</i> (Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 125: "Literary, philosophical, and historical studies often rely on a notion of what is <i>canonical</i>. In American philosophy scholars go from Jonathan Edwards to John Dewey; in American literature from James Fenimore Cooper to F. Scott Fitzgerald; in political theory from Plato to Hobbes and Locke […] The texts or authors who fill in the blanks from A to Z in these, and other intellectual traditions, constitute the canon, and there is an accompanying narrative that links text to text or author to author, a 'history of' American literature, economic thought, and so on. The most conventional of such histories are embodied in university courses and the textbooks that accompany them. This essay examines one such course, the History of Modern Philosophy, and the texts that helped to create it. If a philosopher in the United States were asked why the seven people in my title comprise Modern Philosophy, the initial response would be: they were the best, and there are historical and philosophical connections among them."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-rutherford-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-rutherford_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rutherford, <i>The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i>, p. 1.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophy14-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-philosophy14_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenny, <i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i>, vol. 3, p. xiii.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophy15-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-philosophy15_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler, A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy, p. 3.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Shand-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Shand_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shand, John (ed.) <i>Central Works of Philosophy, Vol.3 The Nineteenth Century</i> (McGill-Queens, 2005)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-universities-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-universities_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Baldwin (ed.), <i>The Cambridge History of Philosophy 1870–1945</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 4: "by the 1870s Germany contained much of the best universities in the world. […] There were certainly more professors of philosophy in Germany in 1870 than anywhere else in the world, and perhaps more even than everywhere else put together."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-frederick-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-frederick_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beiser, Frederick C. <i>The Cambridge Companion to Hegel</i>, (Cambridge, 1993).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-transformation-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-transformation_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baldwin (ed.), <i>The Cambridge History of Philosophy 1870–1945</i>, p. 119: "within a hundred years of the first stirrings in the early nineteenth century [logic] had undergone the most fundamental transformation and substantial advance in its history."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophical16-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-philosophical16_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Soames" title="Scott Soames">Scott Soames</a>, <i>Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century</i>, vol. 2, p. 463.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-stanfordBR-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-stanfordBR_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/">"Bertrand Russell"</a>, 1 May 2003: "Russell is generally recognized as one of the founders of modern analytic philosophy. […] he is regularly credited with being one of the most important logicians of the twentieth century."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-encyclopedia17-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-encyclopedia17_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Edwards (ed.), <i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, vol. 7 (Macmillan, 1967), p. 239: "Russell has exercised an influence on the course of Anglo-American philosophy in the twentieth century second to that of no other individual."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophers18-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-philosophers18_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Baldwin (ed.), <i>The Cambridge History of Philosophy 1870–1945</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 376: "[…] the three greatest European philosophers of the twentieth century—Heidegger, Russell, and Wittgenstein."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-wittgenstein-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-wittgenstein_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Avrum Stroll, <i>Twentieth-Century Analytic Philosophy</i> (Columbia University Press, 2000), p. 252: "More than any other analytic philosopher, [Wittgenstein] has changed the thinking of a whole generation."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-utm-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-utm_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/wittgens/">"Wittgenstein, Ludwig"</a> in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Ludwig Wittgenstein is one of the most influential philosophers of the twentieth century, and regarded by some as the most important since Immanuel Kant."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-contemporary-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-contemporary_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Baldwin, <i>Contemporary Philosophy</i> (Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 90: "[Quine] has been, without question, the most influential American philosopher of the second half of the twentieth century."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-encyclopedia19-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-encyclopedia19_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Hylton, "Quine", in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Quine's work has been extremely influential and has done much to shape the course of philosophy in the second-half of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-uncontroversially-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-uncontroversially_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew Bailey, <i>First Philosophy: Knowledge and Reality</i> (Broadview Press, 2004), p. 274: "Willard Van Orman Quine (1908–2000) was uncontroversially one of the most important philosophers of the twentieth century."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-wittgenstein20-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-wittgenstein20_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony Kenny, <i>Philosophy in the Modern World</i> (Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 64: "After Wittgenstein's death many people regarded W.V.O. Quine (1908–2000) as the doyen of Anglophone philosophy."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-stanford21-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-stanford21_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/david-lewis/">[2]</a>: "David Lewis (1941–2001) was one of the most important philosophers of the 20th Century. He made significant contributions to philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of science, decision theory, epistemology, meta-ethics and aesthetics. In most of these fields he is essential reading; in many of them he is among the most important figures of recent decades. And this list leaves out his two most significant contributions."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-introduction-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-introduction_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Perry_(philosopher)" title="John Perry (philosopher)">John Perry</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Bratman" title="Michael Bratman">Michael Bratman</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Martin_Fischer" title="John Martin Fischer">John Martin Fischer</a> (eds.), <i>Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings</i>, 4th ed. (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 302: "David Lewis (1941–2001) was one of the most important philosophers of the twentieth century."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-stanford22-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-stanford22_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/husserl/">"Edmund Husserl"</a>, in <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>: "Edmund Husserl was the principal founder of phenomenology—and thus one of the most influential philosophers of the 20th century."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-utm23-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-utm23_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/husserl/">"Husserl, Edmund"</a>, in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "he is arguably one of the most important and influential philosophers of the twentieth century."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-influential-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-influential_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Raymond Geuss, in Thomas Baldwin (ed.), <i>The Cambridge History of Philosophy 1870–1945</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 497: "Heidegger is by a wide margin the single most influential philosopher of the twentieth century."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-utm24-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-utm24_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/heidegge/">"Heidegger, Martin"</a>, in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Martin Heidegger is widely acknowledged to be one of the most original and important philosophers of the 20th century".</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Critique_of_Pure_Reason-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Critique_of_Pure_Reason_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kant, Immanuel (1990). <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>. Prometheus Books. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-596-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-596-6">978-0-87975-596-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Kant%2C+Immanuel&amp;rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-87975-596-6&amp;rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce, C. S. (1878), "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/How_to_Make_Our_Ideas_Clear" class="extiw" title="s:How to Make Our Ideas Clear">How to Make Our Ideas Clear</a>", <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, v. 12, 286–302. Reprinted often, including <i>Collected Papers</i> v. 5, paragraphs 388–410 and <i>Essential Peirce</i> v. 1, 124–41. See end of §II for the pragmatic maxim. See third and fourth paragraphs in §IV for the discoverability of truth and the real by sufficient investigation. Also see quotes from Peirce from across the years in the entries for <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/truth.html">"Truth"</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/pragmatismmaxim.html">"Pragmatism, Maxim of..."</a> in the <i>Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms</i>, Mats Bergman and Sami Paavola, editors, University of Helsinki.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-paragraphs-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-paragraphs_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce on p. 293 of "How to Make Our Ideas Clear", Popular Science Monthly, v. 12, pp. 286–302. Reprinted widely, including Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce (CP) v. 5, paragraphs 388–410.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Rorty-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Rorty_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Rorty, Richard (1982). <i>The Consequences of Pragmatism</i>. Minnesota: Minnesota University Press. p.&#160;xvi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Rorty%2C+Richard&amp;rft.btitle=The+Consequences+of+Pragmatism&amp;rft.date=1982&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=xvi&amp;rft.place=Minnesota&amp;rft.pub=Minnesota+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Putnam-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Putnam_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Putnam, Hilary (1995). <i>Pragmatism: An Open Question</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. pp.&#160;8–12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Putnam%2C+Hilary&amp;rft.btitle=Pragmatism%3A+An+Open+Question&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=8-12&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Blackwell&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Pratt-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Pratt_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Pratt, J. B. (1909). <i>What is Pragmatism?</i>. New York: Macmillan. p.&#160;89.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Pratt%2C+J.+B.&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+Pragmatism%3F&amp;rft.date=1909&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=89&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Macmillan&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Ref-1-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Ref-1_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Ref-1_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Woodruff Smith, David (2007). <i>Husserl</i>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Woodruff+Smith%2C+David&amp;rft.btitle=Husserl&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Dreyfus-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Dreyfus_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Dreyfus, Hubert (2006). <i>A Companion to Phenomenology and Existentialism</i>. Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Dreyfus%2C+Hubert&amp;rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Phenomenology+and+Existentialism&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=Blackwell&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-existentialism-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-existentialism_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Macquarrie, <i>Existentialism</i>, New York (1972), pages 18–21.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophy25-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-philosophy25_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i>, ed. Ted Honderich, New York (1995), page 259.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-existentialism26-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-existentialism26_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Macquarrie, <i>Existentialism</i>, New York (1972), pages 14–15.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-existentialism27-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-existentialism27_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert C. Solomon, <i>Existentialism</i> (McGraw-Hill, 1974, pages 1–2)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-existentialism28-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-existentialism28_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernst Breisach, <i>Introduction to Modern Existentialism</i>, New York (1962), page 5</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-existentialism29-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-existentialism29_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter Kaufmann, <i>Existentialism: From Dostoevesky to Sartre</i>, New York (1956) page 12</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-kierkegaard-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-kierkegaard_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Matustik, Martin J. (1995). <i>Kierkegaard in Post/Modernity</i>. Indiana University Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-20967-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-20967-2">978-0-253-20967-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Matustik%2C+Martin+J.&amp;rft.btitle=Kierkegaard+in+Post%2FModernity&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-253-20967-2&amp;rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Bob-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Bob_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Solomon, Robert (2001). <i>What Nietzsche Really Said</i>. Schocken. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-1094-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-1094-1">978-0-8052-1094-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Solomon%2C+Robert&amp;rft.btitle=What+Nietzsche+Really+Said&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8052-1094-1&amp;rft.pub=Schocken&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-existentialists-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-existentialists_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Religious thinkers were among those influenced by Kierkegaard. Christian existentialists include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Berdyaev" title="Nicholas Berdyaev" class="mw-redirect">Nicholas Berdyaev</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel_de_Unamuno" title="Miguel de Unamuno">Miguel de Unamuno</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a> (although he preferred to speak of his "philosophical faith"). The Jewish philosophers <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a> have also been associated with existentialism.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Fear_and_Trembling-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Fear_and_Trembling_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kierkegaard, Søren (1986). <i>Fear and Trembling</i>. Penguin Classics. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044449-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044449-0">978-0-14-044449-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Kierkegaard%2C+S%C3%B8ren&amp;rft.btitle=Fear+and+Trembling&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-14-044449-0&amp;rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kierkegaard, Søren (1992). <i>Concluding Unscientific Postscript</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02081-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02081-5">978-0-691-02081-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Kierkegaard%2C+S%C3%B8ren&amp;rft.btitle=Concluding+Unscientific+Postscript&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-691-02081-5&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kerr, Fergu. <i>After Aquinas: Versions of Thomism</i>. Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Fergu&amp;rft.aulast=Kerr&amp;rft.btitle=After+Aquinas%3A+Versions+of+Thomism&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=Blackwell&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aquinas, "<i>De veritate</i>, Q.2, art.3, answer 19".</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Feser, Edward (2009). <i>Aquinas: A Beginner's Guide</i>. Oneworld. p.&#160;216. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85168-690-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-85168-690-8">1-85168-690-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Edward&amp;rft.aulast=Feser&amp;rft.btitle=Aquinas%3A+A+Beginner%27s+Guide&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=1-85168-690-8&amp;rft.pages=216&amp;rft.pub=Oneworld&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Paterson &amp; Pugh,. <i>Analytical Thomism: Traditions in Dialogue</i>. Ashgate.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Paterson+%26+Pugh%2C&amp;rft.btitle=Analytical+Thomism%3A+Traditions+in+Dialogue&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=Ashgate&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-russell-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Philosophy#cite_ref-russell_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Russell, Bertrand (22 February 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-principles-of-mathematics">"<i>The Principles of Mathematics</i> (1903)"</a>. Fair-use.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Bertrand&amp;rft.aulast=Russell&amp;rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+Mathematics+%281903%29&amp;rft.date=1999-02-22&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffair-use.org%2Fbertrand-russell%2Fthe-principles-of-mathematics&amp;rft.pub=Fair-use.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Bullock" title="Alan Bullock">Bullock, Alan</a>, R. B. Woodings, and John Cumming, <i>eds</i>. <i>The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thinkers</i>, in series, <i>Fontana Original[s]</i>. Hammersmith, Eng.: Fontana Press, 1992, cop. 1983. xxv, 867 p. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780006369653" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-00-636965-3</a></li>
<li>Bullock, Alan, and Oliver Stallybrass, <i>jt. eds</i>. <i>The Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought</i>. New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1977. xix, 684 p. <i>N.B</i>.: "First published in England under the title, <i>The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought</i>." <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780060105785" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-06-010578-5</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didier_Julia" title="Didier Julia">Julia, Didier</a>. <i>Dictionnaire de la philosophie</i>. Responsible éditorial, Emmanuel de Waresquiel; secretariat de rédaction, Joelle Narjollet. [Éd. rev.]. Paris: Larousse, 2006. 301, [1] p. + xvi p. of ill. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782035833099" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-2-03-583309-9</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_L._Reese" title="William L. Reese">Reese, W. L.</a> <i>Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought</i>. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1980. iv, 644 p. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780391006881" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-391-00688-1</a></li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Introductions">Introductions</span></h3>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah">Appiah, Kwame Anthony</a>. <i>Thinking it Through&#160;&#160;– An Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy</i>, 2003, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195134582" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-513458-2</a></li>
<li>Blumenau, Ralph. <i>Philosophy and Living</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780907845331" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-907845-33-1</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Craig_(philosopher)" title="Edward Craig (philosopher)">Craig, Edward</a>. <i>Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192854216" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-285421-6</a></li>
<li>Curley, Edwin, <i>A Spinoza Reader</i>, Princeton, 1994, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691000671" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-691-00067-1</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Durant, Will</a>, <i>Story of Philosophy: The Lives and Opinions of the World's Greatest Philosophers</i>, Pocket, 1991, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780671739164" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-671-73916-4</a></li>
<li>Harrison-Barbet, Anthony, <i>Mastering Philosophy</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780333693438" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-333-69343-8</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathleen_Higgins" title="Kathleen Higgins">Higgins, Kathleen M.</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_C._Solomon" title="Robert C. Solomon">Solomon, Robert C.</a> <i>A Short History of Philosophy</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195101966" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-510196-6</a></li>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_Now" title="Philosophy Now">Philosophy Now</a></i> magazine</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/phil/russell/">The Problems of Philosophy</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title="&#160;since March 2015">dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195115529" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-511552-9</a></li>
<li>Sinclair, Alistair J. <i>What is Philosophy? An Introduction</i>, 2008, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781903765944" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-903765-94-4</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Sober" title="Elliott Sober">Sober, Elliott</a>. (2001). <i>Core Questions in Philosophy: A Text with Readings</i>. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780131898691" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-13-189869-1</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_C._Solomon" title="Robert C. Solomon">Solomon, Robert C.</a> <i>Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780534167080" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-534-16708-0</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel_Warburton" title="Nigel Warburton">Warburton, Nigel</a>. <i>Philosophy: The Basics</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415146944" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-14694-4</a></li>
<li>Gerald Rochelle <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.practicalphilosophy.org.uk/">[3]</a> Doing Philosophy, 2012, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781780460048" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-78046-004-8</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Topical_introductions">Topical introductions</span></h3>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul>
<li>Copleston, Frederick. <i>Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780268015695" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-268-01569-5</a></li>
<li>Critchley, Simon. <i>Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192853592" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-285359-2</a></li>
<li>Hamilton, Sue. <i>Indian Philosophy: a Very Short Introduction</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192853745" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-285374-5</a></li>
<li>Harwood, Sterling, ed., <i>Business as Ethical and Business as Usual</i> (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 2000); www.sterlingharwood.com</li>
<li>Imbo, Samuel Oluoch. '3'An Introduction to African Philosophy<i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780847688418" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-8476-8841-8</a></i></li>
<li>Knight, Kelvin. <i>Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780745619774" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-7456-1977-4</a></li>
<li>Kupperman, Joel J. <i>Classic Asian Philosophy: A Guide to the Essential Texts</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195133356" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-513335-6</a></li>
<li>Leaman, Oliver. <i>A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780745619606" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-7456-1960-6</a></li>
<li>Lee, Joe and Powell, Jim. <i>Eastern Philosophy For Beginners</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780863162824" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-86316-282-4</a></li>
<li>Nagel, Thomas. <i>What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195052923" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-505292-3</a></li>
<li>Scruton, Roger. <i>A Short History of Modern Philosophy</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415267632" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-26763-2</a></li>
<li>Smart, Ninian. <i>World Philosophies</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415228527" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-22852-7</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Tarnas" title="Richard Tarnas">Tarnas, Richard</a>. <i>The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas That Have Shaped Our World View</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780345368096" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-345-36809-6</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Anthologies">Anthologies</span></h3>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul>
<li><i>Classics of Philosophy (Vols. 1 &amp; 2, 2nd edition)</i> by Louis P. Pojman</li>
<li><i>Classics of Philosophy: The 20th Century (Vol. 3)</i> by Louis P. Pojman</li>
<li><i>The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill</i> by Edwin Arthur</li>
<li><i>European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche</i> by Monroe Beardsley</li>
<li><i>Contemporary Analytic Philosophy: Core Readings</i> by James Baillie</li>
<li><i>Existentialism: Basic Writings (Second Edition)</i> by Charles Guignon, Derk Pereboom</li>
<li><i>The Phenomenology Reader</i> by Dermot Moran, Timothy Mooney</li>
<li><i>Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings</i> edited by Muhammad Ali Khalidi</li>
<li><i>A Source Book in Indian Philosophy</i> by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Charles A. Moore</li>
<li>Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed. (1999). <i>Metaphysics: An Anthology</i>. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.</li>
<li><i>The Oxford Handbook of Free Will</i> (2004) edited by Robert Kane</li>
<li>Husserl, Edmund and Donn Welton (1999). <i>The Essential Husserl: Basic Writings in Transcendental Phenomenology</i>, Indiana University Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780253212733" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-253-21273-3</a></li>
<li>Cottingham, John. Western Philosophy: An Anthology. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2008. Print. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Reference_works">Reference works</span></h3>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul>
<li><cite id="CITEREFChan1963" class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing-tsit_Chan" title="Wing-tsit Chan">Chan, Wing-tsit</a> (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/A_Source_Book_in_Chinese_Philosophy.html?id=dzmMaVTvUzAC"><i>A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01964-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-01964-9">0-691-01964-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Wing-tsit&amp;rft.aulast=Chan&amp;rft.btitle=A+Source+Book+in+Chinese+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1963&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FA_Source_Book_in_Chinese_Philosophy.html%3Fid%3DdzmMaVTvUzAC&amp;rft.isbn=0-691-01964-9&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFHuang1999" class="citation book">Huang, Siu-chi (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Essentials_of_Neo_Confucianism.html?id=sjzPPg8eK7sC"><i>Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-26449-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-26449-X">0-313-26449-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Siu-chi&amp;rft.aulast=Huang&amp;rft.btitle=Essentials+of+Neo-Confucianism%3A+Eight+Major+Philosophers+of+the+Song+and+Ming+Periods&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FEssentials_of_Neo_Confucianism.html%3Fid%3DsjzPPg8eK7sC&amp;rft.isbn=0-313-26449-X&amp;rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i> edited by Ted Honderich</li>
<li><i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i> by Robert Audi</li>
<li><i>The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (10 vols.) edited by Edward Craig, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luciano_Floridi" title="Luciano Floridi">Luciano Floridi</a> (available online by subscription); or</li>
<li><i>The Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> edited by Edward Craig (an abridgement)</li>
<li><i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (8 vols.) edited by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Edwards_(philosopher)" title="Paul Edwards (philosopher)">Paul Edwards</a>; in 1996, a ninth supplemental volume appeared that updated the classic 1967 encyclopedia.</li>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Directory_of_Philosophy_and_Philosophers" title="International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers" class="mw-redirect">International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers</a></i>. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.</li>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directory_of_American_Philosophers" title="Directory of American Philosophers" class="mw-redirect">Directory of American Philosophers</a></i>. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.</li>
<li><i>Routledge History of Philosophy</i> (10 vols.) edited by John Marenbon</li>
<li><i>History of Philosophy</i> (9 vols.) by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Frederick Copleston</a></li>
<li><i>A History of Western Philosophy</i> (5 vols.) by W. T. Jones</li>
<li><i>History of Italian Philosophy</i> (2 vols.) by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenio_Garin" title="Eugenio Garin">Eugenio Garin</a>. Translated from Italian and Edited by Giorgio Pinton. Introduction by Leon Pompa.</li>
<li><i>Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophies</i> (8 vols.), edited by Karl H. Potter et al. (first 6 volumes out of print)</li>
<li><i>Indian Philosophy</i> (2 vols.) by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan</a></li>
<li><i>A History of Indian Philosophy</i> (5 vols.) by Surendranath Dasgupta</li>
<li><i>History of Chinese Philosophy</i> (2 vols.) by Fung Yu-lan, Derk Bodde</li>
<li><i>Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-ming</i> by Chan, Wing-tsit</li>
<li><i>Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy</i> edited by Antonio S. Cua</li>
<li><i>Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion</i> by Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt Friedrichs</li>
<li><i>Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy</i> by Brian Carr, Indira Mahalingam</li>
<li><i>A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English</i> by John A. Grimes</li>
<li><i>History of Islamic Philosophy</i> edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Oliver Leaman</li>
<li><i>History of Jewish Philosophy</i> edited by Daniel H. Frank, Oliver Leaman</li>
<li><i>A History of Russian Philosophy: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Centuries</i> by Valerii Aleksandrovich Kuvakin</li>
<li>Ayer, A.J. et al., Ed. (1994) <i>A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations</i>. Blackwell Reference Oxford. Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd.</li>
<li>Blackburn, S., Ed. (1996)<i>The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. Oxford, Oxford University Press.</li>
<li>Mauter, T., Ed. <i>The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. London, Penguin Books.</li>
<li>Runes, D., Ed. (1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/runes/"><i>The Dictionary of Philosophy</i></a>. New York, The Philosophical Library, Inc.</li>
<li>Angeles, P.A., Ed. (1992). <i>The Harper Collins Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. New York, Harper Perennial.</li>
<li>Bunnin, N. et al., Ed. (1996) <i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i>. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.</li>
<li>Hoffman, Eric, Ed. (1997) <i>Guidebook for Publishing Philosophy</i>. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.</li>
<li>Popkin, R.H. (1999). <i>The Columbia History of Western Philosophy</i>. New York, Columbia University Press.</li>
</ul>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
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<li><a class="external text" href="https://tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&amp;su=Philosophy&amp;library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li>
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<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/">The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/">PhilPapers</a> – a comprehensive directory of online philosophical articles and books by academic philosophers</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wadsworth.com/philosophy_d/special_features/timeline/timeline.html">Philosophy Timeline</a></li>
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<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophyreview.blogspot.com/">Philosophy Magazines and Journals</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dmoz.org/Society/Philosophy/">Philosophy</a> at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DMOZ" title="DMOZ">DMOZ</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journals.cambridge.org/phi">Philosophy (review)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pdcnet.org/">Philosophy Documentation Center</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/643889/The-Will-to-Believe-and-Other-Essays-in-Popular-Philosophy">Popular Philosophy</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines#Philosophy" title="List of academic disciplines" class="mw-redirect">Branches</a></div>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Philosophy of</th>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Art</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Film</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Business</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_dialogue" title="Philosophy of dialogue">Dialogue</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_futility" title="Philosophy of futility">Futility</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Human nature</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_humor" title="Theories of humor">Humor</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_feminism" title="Philosophy of feminism" class="mw-redirect">Feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Sexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport" title="Philosophy of sport">Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">War</a></li>
</ul>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools of thought</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li>
<li><a href="Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophism" title="Sophism">Sophism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" title="Cārvāka" class="mw-redirect">Cārvāka</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a>
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;">9th–16th<br />
century</div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_philosophy" title="European philosophy" class="mw-redirect">European</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminationism#Persian_school_of_Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Persian Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" title="Ilm al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect">Ilm al-Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a>
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;">17th–19th<br />
century</div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideal</a>&#160;/ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Material</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_realism" title="Classical realism" class="mw-redirect">Classical realism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Law" title="Natural Law" class="mw-redirect">Natural Law</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a>
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;">20th–21st<br />
century</div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_linguistics" title="Generative linguistics" class="mw-redirect">Generative linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_.27aretaic_turn.27" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positions</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" title="Institutional theory of art" class="mw-redirect">Institutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology" class="mw-redirect">Deontology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasonism" title="Reasonism">Reasonism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_region" title="Category:Philosophy by region">Philosophy by region</a></li>
<li>Philosophy-related lists</li>
<li>Miscellaneous</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_region" title="Category:Philosophy by region">By region</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Native America</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_philosophy" title="Polish philosophy" class="mw-redirect">Polish</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy" class="mw-redirect">Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovene_philosophy" title="Slovene philosophy" class="mw-redirect">Slovene</a></li>
</ul>
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</td>
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<tr style="height:2px">
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Lists</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_movement" title="Philosophical movement">Movements</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Miscellaneous</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sage (philosophy)</a></li>
</ul>
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</table>
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<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy">WikiProject</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Special:RecentChangesLinked/Template:Philosophy topics">Changes</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li>
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interwiki-ay"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lup%27intawi" title="Lup'intawi – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99" title="Fəlsəfə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – تۆرکجه" lang="azb" hreflang="azb">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="দর্শন – Bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiat-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Tiat-ha̍k – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99" title="Фәлсәфә – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філасофія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="https://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філязофія – беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – भोजपुरी" lang="bh" hreflang="bh">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%9A%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%89%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="མཚན་ཉིད་རིག་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prederouriezh" title="Prederouriezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Гүн ухаан – буряад" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Философи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya" title="Pilosopiya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athroniaeth" title="Athroniaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoofia" title="Filosoofia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φιλοσοφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%BC%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8C_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C)" title="Эрямо койтнень содамось (философиясь) – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio" title="Filozofio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimspeki" title="Heimspeki – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofy" title="Filosofy – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feals%C3%BAnacht" title="Fealsúnacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallsoonys" title="Fallsoonys – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feallsanachd" title="Feallsanachd – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學 – Gan Chinese" lang="gan" hreflang="gan">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chet-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Chet-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak">客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="दर्शनशास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio" title="Filozofio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81k%E1%BB%8D_na_Uche" title="Ákọ na Uche – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopia" title="Pilosopia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia" title="Philosophia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%83%E1%93%B1%E1%92%AA%E1%93%95%E1%90%85%E1%95%90%E1%93%82%E1%96%85" title="ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᕐᓂᖅ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu">ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifilosofi" title="Ifilosofi – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimspeki" title="Heimspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94" title="פילוסופיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv">Basa Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuunerup_isumalerineq" title="Inuunerup isumalerineq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ತತ್ತ್ವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფილოსოფია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofij%C3%B4" title="Filozofijô – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi" title="Filozofi – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw">Kinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa" title="Falsafa – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi" title="Filozofi – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe" title="Felsefe – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2" title="ປັດຊະຍາ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia" title="Philosophia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofija" title="Filosofija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B2sofia" title="Filòsofia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/pijyske" title="pijyske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo">Lojban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filusufia" title="Filusufia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo">Lumbaart</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filoz%C3%B3fia" title="Filozófia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Филозофија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B4z%C3%B4fia" title="Filôzôfia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="തത്ത്വശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofija" title="Filosofija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="तत्त्वज्ञान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah" title="Falsafah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%C3%A9k-h%C5%8Fk" title="Diék-hŏk – Min Dong Chinese" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo">Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Философи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9D%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%91%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="သဘာဝတ္ထဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlazohmatiliztli" title="Tlazohmatiliztli – Nāhuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filesefie" title="Filesefie – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Философи – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofii" title="Filosofii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Nouormand" lang="nrm" hreflang="nrm">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Философий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falaasama" title="Falaasama – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa" title="Falsafa – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8" title="ਦਰਸ਼ਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl">Pälzisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%8C" title="فلاسفی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ACa" title="Filosofìa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopi" title="Pilosopi – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia" title="Filozofia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φιλοσοφία – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt">Ποντιακά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiya" title="Filosofiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofie" title="Filozofie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yachay_wayllukuy" title="Yachay wayllukuy – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філозофія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="तत्त्वज्ञानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sg"><a href="https://sg.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AAnd%C3%A2ndar%C3%A4" title="Sêndândarä – Sango" lang="sg" hreflang="sg">Sängö</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st">Sesotho</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia" title="Filozofia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filusuf%C3%ACa" title="Filusufìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="දර්ශනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia" title="Filozofia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filasoofiyada" title="Filasoofiyada – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95" title="فەلسەفە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabi_fu_denki" title="Sabi fu denki – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn">Sranantongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Филозофија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su">Basa Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya" title="Pilosopiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மெய்யியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafelsuft" title="Tafelsuft – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99" title="Фәлсәфә – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="తత్వము – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2" title="ปรัชญา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0" title="Фалсафа – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A4%E1%8F%AC%E1%8E%B3%E1%8F%A8%E1%8E%AF" title="ᎤᏬᎳᏨᎯ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe" title="Felsefe – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi%C3%BDa" title="Filosofiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філософія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%81" title="فلسفہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%BE%DB%95" title="پەلسەپە – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cwzyoz" title="Cwzyoz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi%C5%82oxof%C3%ACa" title="Fiłoxofìa – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri%E1%BA%BFt_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Triết học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosop" title="Filosop – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoofia" title="Filosoofia – Võro" lang="fiu-vro" hreflang="fiu-vro">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofeye" title="Filozofeye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學 – Classical Chinese" lang="zh-classical" hreflang="zh-classical">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiya" title="Filosofiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeltu" title="Xeltu – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學 – Wu Chinese" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A2" title="פילאסאפיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cm%C3%B2ye" title="Ìmòye – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe" title="Felsefe – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosuop%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Filosuopėjė – Samogitian" lang="bat-smg" hreflang="bat-smg">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="哲学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai">मैथिली</a></li><li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="Philosophy#"></a></li>					</ul>
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