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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Modern philosophy</h1>
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				<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><p><b>Modern philosophy</b> is a branch of <a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> that originated in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> in the 17th century, and is now common worldwide. It is not a specific doctrine or school (and thus should not be confused with <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></i>), although there are certain assumptions common to much of it, which helps to distinguish it from earlier philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks hlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%">
<tr>
<th class="navbox-title" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Western_philosophy" title="History of Western philosophy" class="mw-redirect">History of<br />
Western philosophy</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sanzio_01_cropped.png" class="image" title="Part of &quot;School of Athens&quot; by Raphael (Raffaelo Sanzio, 1483-1520)"><img alt="Part of &quot;School of Athens&quot; by Raphael (Raffaelo Sanzio, 1483-1520)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sanzio_01_cropped.png/220px-Sanzio_01_cropped.png" width="220" height="122" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sanzio_01_cropped.png/330px-Sanzio_01_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sanzio_01_cropped.png/440px-Sanzio_01_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="2382" data-file-height="1326" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th class="navbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.1em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.2em;">
<dl>
<dd><i>By era</i></dd>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Pre-Socratic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Modern</strong></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.2em;;padding-bottom:0.8em;">
<dl>
<dd><i>By century</i></dd>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th-century_philosophy" title="16th-century philosophy">16th</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17th-century_philosophy" title="17th-century philosophy">17th</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">18th</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th-century_philosophy" title="19th-century philosophy">19th</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th-century_philosophy" title="20th-century philosophy">20th</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">21st</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th class="navbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.1em">See also</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.2em;">
<dl>
<dd><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></i></dd>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikh_philosophy" title="Sikh philosophy">Sikh</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.2em;;padding-bottom:0.8em;">
<dl>
<dd><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a></i></dd>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_philosophy" title="Arab philosophy" class="mw-redirect">Arab</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_literature#Philosophy" title="Babylonian literature" class="mw-redirect">Babylonian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0.15em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%">
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<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:History_of_Western_philosophy" title="Template:History of Western philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Western_philosophy" title="Template talk:History of Western philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_Western_philosophy&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li>
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<p>The 17th and early 20th centuries roughly mark the beginning and the end of modern philosophy. How much if any of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> should be included is a matter for dispute; likewise modernity may or may not have ended in the twentieth century and been replaced by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernity" title="Postmodernity">postmodernity</a>. How one decides these questions will determine the scope of one's use of "modern philosophy." This article will focus on the history of philosophy beginning from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rene_Descartes" title="Rene Descartes" class="mw-redirect">Rene Descartes</a> through the early twentieth century ending in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>.</p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="Modern_philosophy#History_of_modern_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History of modern philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Rationalism"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Rationalism</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-3"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Rationalists"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Rationalists</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Empiricism"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Empiricism</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Empiricists"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Empiricists</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Political_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Political philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Political_philosophers"><span class="tocnumber">1.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Political philosophers</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Idealism"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Idealism</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Idealist_philosophers"><span class="tocnumber">1.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Idealist philosophers</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Existentialism"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Existentialism</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Existential_philosophers"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Existential philosophers</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Phenomenology"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Phenomenology</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Phenomenological_philosophers"><span class="tocnumber">1.6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Phenomenological philosophers</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Pragmatism"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">Pragmatism</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Pragmatist_philosophers"><span class="tocnumber">1.7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Pragmatist philosophers</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Analytic_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">1.8</span> <span class="toctext">Analytic philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Analytic_philosophers"><span class="tocnumber">1.8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Analytic philosophers</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="Modern_philosophy#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="Modern_philosophy#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History_of_modern_philosophy">History of modern philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: History of modern philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The major figures in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> during the 17th and 18th centuries are roughly divided into 2 main groups. The "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalists</a>," mostly in France and Germany, argued all knowledge must begin from certain "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">innate ideas</a>" in the mind. Major rationalists were <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes" title="Descartes" class="mw-redirect">Descartes</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz" class="mw-redirect">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a>. The "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricists</a>," by contrast, held that knowledge must begin with sensory experience. Major figures in this line of thought are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> (These are retrospective categories, for which Kant is largely responsible.) Ethics and political philosophy are usually not subsumed under these categories, though all these philosophers worked in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, in their own distinctive styles. Other important figures in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>.</p>
<p>In the late eighteenth century <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> set forth a groundbreaking philosophical system which claimed to bring unity to rationalism and empiricism. Whether or not he was right, he did not entirely succeed in ending philosophical dispute. Kant sparked a storm of philosophical work in Germany in the early nineteenth century, beginning with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a>. The characteristic theme of idealism was that the world and the mind equally must be understood according to the same categories; it culminated in the work of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a>, who among many other things said that "The real is rational; the rational is real."</p>
<p>Hegel's work was carried in many directions by his followers and critics. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> appropriated both Hegel's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">philosophy of history</a> and the empirical ethics dominant in Britain, transforming Hegel's ideas into a strictly materialist form, setting the grounds for the development of a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">science of society</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a>, in contrast, dismissed all <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_philosophy" title="Systematic philosophy" class="mw-redirect">systematic philosophy</a> as an inadequate guide to life and meaning. For Kierkegaard, life is meant to be lived, not a mystery to be solved. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a> took idealism to the conclusion that the world was nothing but the futile endless interplay of images and desires, and advocated <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pessimism" title="Pessimism">pessimism</a>. Schopenhauer's ideas were taken up and transformed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nietzsche" title="Nietzsche" class="mw-redirect">Nietzsche</a>, who seized upon their various dismissals of the world to proclaim "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_is_dead" title="God is dead">God is dead</a>" and to reject all systematic philosophy and all striving for a fixed truth transcending the individual. Nietzsche found in this not grounds for pessimism, but the possibility of a new kind of freedom.</p>
<p>19th-century British philosophy came increasingly to be dominated by strands of neo-Hegelian thought, and as a reaction against this, figures such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Edward_Moore" title="George Edward Moore" class="mw-redirect">George Edward Moore</a> began moving in the direction of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>, which was essentially an updating of traditional empiricism to accommodate the new developments in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> of the German mathematician <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Rationalism">Rationalism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Rationalism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></div>
<p>Modern philosophy traditionally begins with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> and his dictum "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">I think, therefore I am</a>". In the early seventeenth century the bulk of philosophy was dominated by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>, written by theologians and drawing upon <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, and early Church writings. Descartes argued that many predominant Scholastic metaphysical doctrines were meaningless or false. In short, he proposed to begin philosophy from scratch. In his most important work, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i>, he attempts just this, over six brief essays. He tries to set aside as much as he possibly can of all his beliefs, to determine what if anything he knows for <i>certain</i>. He finds that he can doubt nearly everything: the reality of physical objects, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, his memories, history, science, even mathematics, but he cannot doubt that he is, in fact, doubting. He knows what he is thinking about, even if it is not true, and he knows that he is there thinking about it. From this basis he builds his knowledge back up again. He finds that some of the ideas he has could not have originated from him alone, but only from God; he proves that God exists. He then demonstrates that God would not allow him to be systematically deceived about everything; in essence, he vindicates ordinary methods of science and reasoning, as fallible but not false.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Rationalists">Rationalists</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Rationalists">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz" class="mw-redirect">Gottfried Leibniz</a></li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Empiricism">Empiricism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Empiricism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></div>
<p>Empiricism is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_knowledge" title="Theory of knowledge" class="mw-redirect">theory of knowledge</a> which opposes other theories of knowledge, such as rationalism, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">historicism</a>. Empiricism asserts that knowledge comes (only or primarily) via sensory <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a> as opposed to rationalism, which asserts that knowledge comes (also) from pure thinking. Both empiricism and rationalism are individualist theories of knowledge, whereas historicism is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">social epistemology</a>. While historicism also acknowledges the role of experience, it differs from empiricism by assuming that sensory data cannot be understood without considering the historical and cultural circumstances in which observations are made. Empiricism should not be mixed up with empirical research because different epistemologies should be considered competing views on how best to do studies, and there is near consensus among researchers that studies should be empirical. Today empiricism should therefore be understood as one among competing ideals of getting knowledge or how to do studies. As such empiricism is first and foremost characterized by the ideal to let observational data "speak for themselves", while the competing views are opposed to this ideal. The term empiricism should thus not just be understood in relation to how this term has been used in the history of philosophy. It should also be constructed in a way which makes it possible to distinguish empiricism among other epistemological positions in contemporary science and scholarship. In other words: Empiricism as a concept has to be constructed along with other concepts, which together make it possible to make important discriminations between different ideals underlying contemporary science.</p>
<p>Empiricism is one of several competing views that predominate in the study of human knowledge, known as epistemology. Empiricism emphasizes the role of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a>, especially <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_perception" title="Sensory perception" class="mw-redirect">sensory perception</a>, in the formation of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">tradition</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> in contrast to, for example, rationalism which relies upon reason and can incorporate innate knowledge.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Empiricists">Empiricists</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Empiricists">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Political_philosophy">Political philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Political philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div>
<p>Political philosophy is the study of such topics as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, and the enforcement of a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_code" title="Legal code" class="mw-redirect">legal code</a> by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a>: what they are, why (or even if) they are needed, what, if anything, makes a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_purpose_of_government" title="The purpose of government" class="mw-redirect">government legitimate</a>, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it should take and why, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown—if ever. In a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> sense, the term "political philosophy" often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a> that does not necessarily belong to the technical discipline of <a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Political_philosophers">Political philosophers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Political philosophers">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">James Mill</a></li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Idealism">Idealism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Idealism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></div>
<p>Idealism refers to the group of philosophies which assert that reality, or reality as we can know it, is fundamentally a construct of the mind or otherwise immaterial. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemologically</a>, idealism manifests as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skepticism</a> about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing. In a sociological sense, idealism emphasizes how human ideas—especially beliefs and values—shape society.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> As an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</a> doctrine, idealism goes further, asserting that all entities are composed of mind or spirit.<sup id="cite_ref-Brittanica_5-0" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-Brittanica-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> Idealism thus rejects <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">physicalist</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">dualist</a> theories that fail to ascribe priority to the mind. An extreme version of this idealism can exist in the philosophical notion of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">solipsism</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Idealist_philosophers">Idealist philosophers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Idealist philosophers">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Herbert_Bradley" title="Francis Herbert Bradley" class="mw-redirect">Francis Herbert Bradley</a></li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Existentialism">Existentialism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Existentialism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></div>
<p><b>Existentialism</b> is generally considered to be the philosophical and cultural movement which holds that the starting point of philosophical thinking must be the individual and the experiences of the individual. Building on that, existentialists hold that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral thinking</a> and <a href="Science" title="Science">scientific thinking</a> together do not suffice to understand human existence, and, therefore, a further set of categories, governed by the norm of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)#Existentialism" title="Authenticity (philosophy)"><i>authenticity</i></a>, is necessary to understand human existence.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Crowell2010Stanford_8-0" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-Crowell2010Stanford-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Existential_philosophers">Existential philosophers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Existential philosophers">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Phenomenology">Phenomenology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Phenomenology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology (philosophy)</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_phenomenology" title="Existential phenomenology">Existential phenomenology</a></div>
<p>Phenomenology is the study of the structure of experience. It is a broad <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_movement" title="Philosophical movement">philosophical movement</a> founded in the early years of the 20th century by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>, expanded upon by a circle of his followers at the universities of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">Göttingen</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich" title="Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich">Munich</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>. The philosophy then spread to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, and elsewhere, often in contexts far removed from Husserl's early work.<sup id="cite_ref-Husserlhistory_9-0" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-Husserlhistory-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Phenomenological_philosophers">Phenomenological philosophers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Phenomenological philosophers">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Scheler" title="Max Scheler">Max Scheler</a></li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Pragmatism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></div>
<p><b>Pragmatism</b> is a philosophical tradition centered on the linking of practice and theory. It describes a process where theory is extracted from practice, and applied back to practice to form what is called <i>intelligent practice</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Important positions characteristic of pragmatism include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalism</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_empiricism" title="Radical empiricism">radical empiricism</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">verificationism</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">conceptual relativity</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">fallibilism</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There is general consensus among pragmatists that philosophy should take the methods and insights of modern science into account.<sup id="cite_ref-BiestaBurbules_10-0" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-BiestaBurbules-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> (and his <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatic_maxim" title="Pragmatic maxim">pragmatic maxim</a>) deserves most of the credit for pragmatism,<sup id="cite_ref-HaackLane2006_11-0" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-HaackLane2006-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> along with later twentieth century contributors <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BiestaBurbules_10-1" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-BiestaBurbules-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Pragmatist_philosophers">Pragmatist philosophers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Pragmatist philosophers">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Analytic_philosophy">Analytic philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Analytic philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></div>
<p>Analytic philosophy came to dominate <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-speaking_countries" title="English-speaking countries" class="mw-redirect">English-speaking countries</a> in the 20th century. In the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, the overwhelming majority of university philosophy departments identify themselves as "analytic" departments.<sup id="cite_ref-Searle03P1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-Searle03P1-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup> The term generally refers to a broad philosophical tradition<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> characterized by an emphasis on clarity and argument (often achieved via modern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_logic" title="Formal logic" class="mw-redirect">formal logic</a> and analysis of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>) and a respect for the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_sciences" title="Natural sciences" class="mw-redirect">natural sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LeiterWeb_15-0" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-LeiterWeb-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Analytic_philosophers">Analytic philosophers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Analytic philosophers">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Edward_Moore" title="George Edward Moore" class="mw-redirect">George Edward Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). <i>From Plato to Derrida</i>. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-158591-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-158591-6">0-13-158591-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Forrest+E.&amp;rft.aulast=Baird&amp;rft.au=Walter+Kaufmann&amp;rft.btitle=From+Plato+to+Derrida&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-13-158591-6&amp;rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). <i>From Plato to Derrida</i>. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-158591-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-158591-6">0-13-158591-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Forrest+E.&amp;rft.aulast=Baird&amp;rft.au=Walter+Kaufmann&amp;rft.btitle=From+Plato+to+Derrida&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-13-158591-6&amp;rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hampton, Jean (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-sHkdq5qhFwC&amp;pg=PR13"><i>Political philosophy</i></a>. p.&#160;xiii. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813308586" title="Special:BookSources/9780813308586">9780813308586</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Jean&amp;rft.aulast=Hampton&amp;rft.btitle=Political+philosophy&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-sHkdq5qhFwC%26pg%3DPR13&amp;rft.isbn=9780813308586&amp;rft.pages=xiii&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Blattberg" title="Charles Blattberg">Charles Blattberg</a>, who defines politics as "responding to conflict with dialogue," suggests that political philosophies offer philosophical accounts of that dialogue. See his <cite class="citation journal">"Political Philosophies and Political Ideologies". <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Science_Research_Network" title="Social Science Research Network">SSRN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1755117">1755117</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Political+Philosophies+and+Political+Ideologies&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D1755117&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> in <i>Patriotic Elaborations: Essays in Practical Philosophy</i>, Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2009.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Macionis, John J. (2012). <i>Sociology 14th Edition</i>. Boston: Pearson. p.&#160;88. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-11671-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-11671-3">978-0-205-11671-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=John+J.&amp;rft.aulast=Macionis&amp;rft.btitle=Sociology+14th+Edition&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-205-11671-3&amp;rft.pages=88&amp;rft.place=Boston&amp;rft.pub=Pearson&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Brittanica-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-Brittanica_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel Sommer Robinson, "Idealism", <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281802/idealism">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281802/idealism</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mullarkey, John, and Beth Lord (eds.). <i>The Continuum Companion to Continental Philosophy</i>. London, 2009, p. 309</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stewart, Jon. <i>Kierkegaard and Existentialism</i>. Farnham, England, 2010, p. ix</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Crowell2010Stanford-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-Crowell2010Stanford_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Crowell" title="Steven Crowell">Crowell, Steven</a> (October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/">"Existentialism"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-04-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Existentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Steven&amp;rft.aulast=Crowell&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2010-10&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fexistentialism%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Husserlhistory-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-Husserlhistory_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZahavi2003" class="citation"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Zahavi" title="Dan Zahavi">Zahavi, Dan</a> (2003), <i>Husserl's Phenomenology</i>, Stanford: Stanford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Dan&amp;rft.aulast=Zahavi&amp;rft.btitle=Husserl%27s+Phenomenology&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Stanford&amp;rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-BiestaBurbules-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-BiestaBurbules_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-BiestaBurbules_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Biesta, G.J.J. &amp; Burbules, N. (2003). <i>Pragmatism and educational research</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-HaackLane2006-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-HaackLane2006_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Susan Haack; Robert Edwin Lane (11 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f-DWAAAAMAAJ"><i>Pragmatism, old &amp; new: selected writings</i></a>. Prometheus Books. pp.&#160;18–67. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-359-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-359-3">978-1-59102-359-3</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy&amp;rft.au=Robert+Edwin+Lane&amp;rft.au=Susan+Haack&amp;rft.btitle=Pragmatism%2C+old+%26+new%3A+selected+writings&amp;rft.date=2006-04-11&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df-DWAAAAMAAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-59102-359-3&amp;rft.pages=18-67&amp;rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Searle03P1-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-Searle03P1_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Without exception, the best philosophy departments in the United States are dominated by analytic philosophy, and among the leading philosophers in the United States, all but a tiny handful would be classified as analytic philosophers. Practitioners of types of philosophizing that are not in the analytic tradition—such as phenomenology, classical pragmatism, existentialism, or Marxism—feel it necessary to define their position in relation to analytic philosophy." <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a> (2003) <i>Contemporary Philosophy in the United States</i> in N. Bunnin and E.P. Tsui-James (eds.), <i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i>, 2nd ed., (Blackwell, 2003), p. 1.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., Avrum Stroll, <i>Twentieth-Century Analytic Philosophy</i> (Columbia University Press, 2000), p. 5: "[I]t is difficult to give a precise definition of 'analytic philosophy' since it is not so much a specific doctrine as a loose concatenation of approaches to problems." Also, see ibid., p. 7: "I think Sluga is right in saying 'it may be hopeless to try to determine the essence of analytic philosophy.' Nearly every proposed definition has been challenged by some scholar. [...] [W]e are dealing with a family resemblance concept."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Johann_Glock" title="Hans-Johann Glock">Hans-Johann Glock</a>, <i>What Is Analytic Philosophy</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 205: "The answer to the title question, then, is that analytic philosophy is a tradition held together <i>both</i> by ties of mutual influence <i>and</i> by family resemblances."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-LeiterWeb-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-LeiterWeb_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Leiter" title="Brian Leiter">Brian Leiter</a> (2006) webpage <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/analytic.asp"><i>“Analytic” and “Continental” Philosophy</i></a>. Quote on the definition: "'Analytic' philosophy today names a style of doing philosophy, not a philosophical program or a set of substantive views. Analytic philosophers, crudely speaking, aim for argumentative clarity and precision; draw freely on the tools of logic; and often identify, professionally and intellectually, more closely with the sciences and mathematics, than with the humanities."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Glock, "Was Wittgenstein an Analytic Philosopher?", <i>Metaphilosophy</i>, 35:4 (2004), pp. 419–444.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Modern_philosophy#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Colin McGinn, <i>The Making of a Philosopher: My Journey through Twentieth-Century Philosophy</i> (HarperCollins, 2002), p. xi.: "analytical philosophy [is] too narrow a label, since [it] is not generally a matter of taking a word or concept and analyzing it (whatever exactly that might be). [...] This tradition emphasizes clarity, rigor, argument, theory, truth. It is not a tradition that aims primarily for inspiration or consolation or ideology. Nor is it particularly concerned with 'philosophy of life,' though parts of it are. This kind of philosophy is more like science than religion, more like mathematics than poetry&#160;– though it is neither science nor mathematics."</span></li>
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<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Art</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Film</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Business</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_dialogue" title="Philosophy of dialogue">Dialogue</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_futility" title="Philosophy of futility">Futility</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Human nature</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_humor" title="Theories of humor">Humor</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_feminism" title="Philosophy of feminism" class="mw-redirect">Feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Sexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport" title="Philosophy of sport">Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">War</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools of thought</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Modern</strong></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophism" title="Sophism">Sophism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" title="Cārvāka" class="mw-redirect">Cārvāka</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a>
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;">9th–16th<br />
century</div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_philosophy" title="European philosophy" class="mw-redirect">European</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminationism#Persian_school_of_Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Persian Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" title="Ilm al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect">Ilm al-Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><strong class="selflink">Modern</strong>
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;">17th–19th<br />
century</div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideal</a>&#160;/ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Material</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_realism" title="Classical realism" class="mw-redirect">Classical realism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Law" title="Natural Law" class="mw-redirect">Natural Law</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a>
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;">20th–21st<br />
century</div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_linguistics" title="Generative linguistics" class="mw-redirect">Generative linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_.27aretaic_turn.27" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positions</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" title="Institutional theory of art" class="mw-redirect">Institutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology" class="mw-redirect">Deontology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasonism" title="Reasonism">Reasonism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_region" title="Category:Philosophy by region">Philosophy by region</a></li>
<li>Philosophy-related lists</li>
<li>Miscellaneous</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_region" title="Category:Philosophy by region">By region</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
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lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderne_filosofi" title="Moderne filosofi – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="معاصره فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_nowo%C5%BCytna" title="Filozofia nowożytna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_moderna" title="Filosofia moderna – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie_modern%C4%83" title="Filosofie modernă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li 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