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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Computer science</h1>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory"><img alt="large capital lambda" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Lambda_lc.svg/144px-Lambda_lc.svg.png" width="144" height="144" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Lambda_lc.svg/216px-Lambda_lc.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Lambda_lc.svg/288px-Lambda_lc.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="375" /></a></td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphics_(computer_science)" title="Computer graphics"><img alt="Utah teapot representing computer graphics" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Utah_teapot_simple_2.png/144px-Utah_teapot_simple_2.png" width="144" height="95" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Utah_teapot_simple_2.png/216px-Utah_teapot_simple_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Utah_teapot_simple_2.png/288px-Utah_teapot_simple_2.png 2x" data-file-width="2733" data-file-height="1809" /></a></td>
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<div class="thumbcaption">Computer science deals with the theoretical foundations of information and computation, together with practical techniques for the implementation and application of these foundations.</div>
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<p><b>Computer science</b> is the <a href="Science" title="Science">scientific</a> and practical approach to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a> and its applications. It is the systematic study of the feasibility, structure, expression, and mechanization of the methodical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedure_(computer_science)" title="Procedure (computer science)" class="mw-redirect">procedures</a> (or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a>) that underlie the acquisition, representation, processing, storage, communication of, and access to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a>. An alternate, more succinct definition of computer science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_scientist" title="Computer scientist">computer scientist</a> specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">computational complexity theory</a> (which explores the fundamental properties of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_problem" title="Computational problem">computational</a> and intractable problems), are highly abstract, while fields such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphics_(computer_science)" title="Computer graphics (computer science)">computer graphics</a> emphasize real-world visual applications. Still other fields focus on challenges in implementing computation. For example, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">programming language theory</a> considers various approaches to the description of computation, while the study of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">computer programming</a> itself investigates various aspects of the use of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_systems" title="Complex systems">complex systems</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a> considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_accessibility" title="Computer accessibility">universally accessible</a> to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>.</p>
<div class="toclimit-4">
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="Computer_science#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="Computer_science#Contributions"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Contributions</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="Computer_science#Philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="Computer_science#Name_of_the_field"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Name of the field</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="Computer_science#Areas_of_computer_science"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Areas of computer science</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="Computer_science#Theoretical_computer_science"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Theoretical computer science</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="Computer_science#Theory_of_computation"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Theory of computation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="Computer_science#Information_and_coding_theory"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Information and coding theory</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="Computer_science#Algorithms_and_data_structures"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Algorithms and data structures</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="Computer_science#Programming_language_theory"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Programming language theory</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="Computer_science#Formal_methods"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Formal methods</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="Computer_science#Applied_computer_science"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Applied computer science</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="Computer_science#Artificial_intelligence"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Artificial intelligence</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="Computer_science#Computer_architecture_and_engineering"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Computer architecture and engineering</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="Computer_science#Computer_performance_analysis"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Computer performance analysis</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="Computer_science#Computer_graphics_and_visualization"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Computer graphics and visualization</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="Computer_science#Computer_security_and_cryptography"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Computer security and cryptography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="Computer_science#Computational_science"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Computational science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="Computer_science#Computer_networks"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Computer networks</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="Computer_science#Concurrent.2C_parallel_and_distributed_systems"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.8</span> <span class="toctext">Concurrent, parallel and distributed systems</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="Computer_science#Databases"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.9</span> <span class="toctext">Databases</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="Computer_science#Software_engineering"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.10</span> <span class="toctext">Software engineering</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="Computer_science#The_great_insights_of_computer_science"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">The great insights of computer science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="Computer_science#Academia"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Academia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="Computer_science#Education"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Education</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="Computer_science#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="Computer_science#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="Computer_science#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="Computer_science#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="Computer_science#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computer_science" title="History of computer science">History of computer science</a></div>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> is credited with inventing the first mechanical computer.</div>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace" title="Ada Lovelace">Ada Lovelace</a> is credited with writing the first <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a> intended for processing on a computer.</div>
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<p>The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_computer" title="Digital computer" class="mw-redirect">digital computer</a>. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a> have existed since antiquity, aiding in computations such as multiplication and division. Further, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a> for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. The ancient <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> treatise <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shulba_Sutras" title="Shulba Sutras">Shulba Sutras</a>, or "Rules of the Chord", is a book of algorithms written in 800 BC for constructing geometric objects like altars using a peg and chord, an early precursor of the modern field of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">computational geometry</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a> designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_calculator" title="Pascal's calculator">Pascal's calculator</a>, in 1642.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> In 1673, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz" class="mw-redirect">Gottfried Leibniz</a> demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepped_Reckoner" title="Stepped Reckoner" class="mw-redirect">Stepped Reckoner</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons, documenting the binary number system. In 1820, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Xavier_Thomas" title="Charles Xavier Thomas">Thomas de Colmar</a> launched the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_calculator" title="Mechanical calculator">mechanical calculator</a> industry<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>note 1<span>]</span></a></sup> when he released his simplified <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmometer" title="Arithmometer">arithmometer</a>, which was the first calculating machine strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> started the design of the first <i>automatic mechanical calculator</i>, his <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difference_Engine" title="Difference Engine" class="mw-redirect">Difference Engine</a>, in 1822, which eventually gave him the idea of the first <i>programmable mechanical calculator</i>, his <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_Engine" title="Analytical Engine">Analytical Engine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> He started developing this machine in 1834 and "in less than two years he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Hyman1982_6-0" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-Hyman1982-6"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> "A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the Jacquard loom"<sup id="cite_ref-Hyman1982_6-1" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-Hyman1982-6"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> making it infinitely programmable.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>note 2<span>]</span></a></sup> In 1843, during the translation of a French article on the Analytical Engine, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace" title="Ada Lovelace">Ada Lovelace</a> wrote, in one of the many notes she included, an algorithm to compute the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli_number" title="Bernoulli number">Bernoulli numbers</a>, which is considered to be the first computer program.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-8"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> Around 1885, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Hollerith" title="Herman Hollerith">Herman Hollerith</a> invented the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabulating_machine" title="Tabulating machine">tabulator</a>, which used <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">punched cards</a> to process statistical information; eventually his company became part of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>. In 1937, one hundred years after Babbage's impossible dream, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_H._Aiken" title="Howard H. Aiken">Howard Aiken</a> convinced IBM, which was making all kinds of punched card equipment and was also in the calculator business<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> to develop his giant programmable calculator, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I" title="Harvard Mark I">ASCC/Harvard Mark I</a>, based on Babbage's Analytical Engine, which itself used cards and a central computing unit. When the machine was finished, some hailed it as "Babbage's dream come true".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>During the 1940s, as new and more powerful <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a> machines were developed, the term <i>computer</i> came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a> in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-Denning_cs_discipline_12-0" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-Denning_cs_discipline-12"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> The world's first computer science degree program, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Diploma_in_Computer_Science" title="Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science">Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science</a>, began at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Computer_Lab" title="Cambridge Computer Lab" class="mw-redirect">Computer Laboratory</a> in 1953. The first computer science degree program in the United States was formed at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purdue_University" title="Purdue University">Purdue University</a> in 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup> Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights.</p>
<p>Although many initially believed it was impossible that computers themselves could actually be a scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic population.<sup id="cite_ref-Levy1984_15-0" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-Levy1984-15"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tedre2014_16-0" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-Tedre2014-16"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> It is the now well-known <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup> and later the IBM 709<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-18"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup> computers, which were widely used during the exploration period of such devices. "Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating […] if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again".<sup id="cite_ref-Levy1984_15-1" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-Levy1984-15"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup> During the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very much in its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace.<sup id="cite_ref-Tedre2014_16-1" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-Tedre2014-16"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-19"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> Modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base. Initially, computers were quite costly, and some degree of human aid was needed for efficient use—in part from professional computer operators. As computer adoption became more widespread and affordable, less human assistance was needed for common usage.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Contributions">Contributions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Contributions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Enigma.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Enigma.jpg/170px-Enigma.jpg" width="170" height="227" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Enigma.jpg/255px-Enigma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Enigma.jpg/340px-Enigma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="600" /></a>
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The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> military used the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma_machine" title="Enigma machine">Enigma machine</a> (shown here) during <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> for communications they wanted kept secret. The large-scale decryption of Enigma traffic at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bletchley_Park" title="Bletchley Park">Bletchley Park</a> was an important factor that contributed to Allied victory in WWII.<sup id="cite_ref-kahnbook_20-0" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-kahnbook-20"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup></div>
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<p>Despite its short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to <a href="Science" title="Science">science</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a>—in fact, along with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, it is a founding science of the current epoch of human history called the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a> and a driver of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_revolution" title="Information revolution">Information Revolution</a>, seen as the third major leap in human technological progress after the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> (1750–1850 CE) and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Agricultural Revolution</a> (8000–5000 BC).</p>
<p>These contributions include:</p>
<ul>
<li>The start of the "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Revolution" title="Digital Revolution">digital revolution</a>", which includes the current <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bgu_21-0" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-bgu-21"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li>A formal definition of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability" title="Computability">computability</a>, and proof that there are computationally <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undecidable_problem" title="Undecidable problem">unsolvable</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory#Intractability" title="Computational complexity theory">intractable</a> problems.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-22"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li>The concept of a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a>, a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-23"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li>In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptanalysis_of_the_Enigma" title="Cryptanalysis of the Enigma">breaking the Enigma code</a> was an important factor contributing to the Allied victory in World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-kahnbook_20-1" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-kahnbook-20"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_science" title="Computational science">Scientific computing</a> enabled practical evaluation of processes and situations of great complexity, as well as experimentation entirely by software. It also enabled advanced study of the mind, and mapping of the human genome became possible with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bgu_21-1" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-bgu-21"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a> projects such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folding@home" title="Folding@home">Folding@home</a> explore <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_folding" title="Protein folding">protein folding</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmic_trading" title="Algorithmic trading">Algorithmic trading</a> has increased the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">efficiency</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_liquidity" title="Market liquidity">liquidity</a> of financial markets by using <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a>, and other <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistical</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">numerical</a> techniques on a large scale.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-24"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup> High frequency algorithmic trading can also exacerbate <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatility_(finance)" title="Volatility (finance)">volatility</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-25"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Computer graphics</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery" title="Computer-generated imagery">computer-generated imagery</a> have become ubiquitous in modern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">entertainment</a>, particularly in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">cinema</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">advertising</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animation" title="Animation">animation</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">video games</a>. Even films that feature no explicit <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery" title="Computer-generated imagery">CGI</a> are usually "filmed" now on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital cameras</a>, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_editing" title="Video editing">edited</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_post-processing" title="Video post-processing">post-processed</a> using a digital video editor.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-26"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-27"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation" title="Simulation">Simulation</a> of various processes, including computational <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">fluid dynamics</a>, physical, electrical, and electronic systems and circuits, as well as societies and social situations (notably war games) along with their habitats, among many others. Modern computers enable optimization of such designs as complete aircraft. Notable in electrical and electronic circuit design are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPICE" title="SPICE">SPICE</a>, as well as software for physical realization of new (or modified) designs. The latter includes essential design software for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> is becoming increasingly important as it gets more efficient and complex. There are many applications of AI, some of which can be seen at home, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotic_vacuum_cleaner" title="Robotic vacuum cleaner">robotic vacuum cleaners</a>. It is also present in video games and on the modern battlefield in drones, anti-missile systems, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legged_Squad_Support_System" title="Legged Squad Support System">squad support robots</a>.</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy">Philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Philosophy of computer science</a></div>
<p>A number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separate paradigms in computer science. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Wegner" title="Peter Wegner">Peter Wegner</a> argued that those paradigms are science, technology, and mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-28"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_J._Denning" title="Peter J. Denning">Peter Denning</a>'s working group argued that they are theory, abstraction (modeling), and design.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-29"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup> Amnon H. Eden described them as the "rationalist paradigm" (which treats computer science as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and mainly employs <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive reasoning</a>), the "technocratic paradigm" (which might be found in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> approaches, most prominently in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a>), and the "scientific paradigm" (which approaches computer-related artifacts from the empirical perspective of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>, identifiable in some branches of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-30"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Name_of_the_field">Name of the field</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Name of the field">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Although first proposed in 1956,<sup id="cite_ref-Tedre2014_16-2" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-Tedre2014-16"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> the term "computer science" appears in a 1959 article in <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_of_the_ACM" title="Communications of the ACM">Communications of the ACM</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Fine_1959_31-0" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-Fine_1959-31"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup> in which Louis Fein argues for the creation of a <i>Graduate School in Computer Sciences</i> analogous to the creation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_School" title="Harvard Business School">Harvard Business School</a> in 1921,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-32"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup> justifying the name by arguing that, like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_science" title="Management science">management science</a>, the subject is applied and interdisciplinary in nature, while having the characteristics typical of an academic discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-Fine_1959_31-1" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-Fine_1959-31"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup> His efforts, and those of others such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">numerical analyst</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Forsythe" title="George Forsythe">George Forsythe</a>, were rewarded: universities went on to create such programs, starting with Purdue in 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-33"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup> Despite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have been proposed.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-34"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup> Certain departments of major universities prefer the term <i>computing science</i>, to emphasize precisely that difference. Danish scientist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Naur" title="Peter Naur">Peter Naur</a> suggested the term <i>datalogy</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-35"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup> to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not necessarily involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in the Scandinavian countries. An alternative term, also proposed by Naur, is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_science" title="Data science">data science</a>; this is now used for a distinct field of data analysis, including statistics and databases.</p>
<p>Also, in the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were suggested in the <i>Communications of the ACM</i>—<i>turingineer</i>, <i>turologist</i>, <i>flow-charts-man</i>, <i>applied meta-mathematician</i>, and <i>applied <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemologist</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-36"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup> Three months later in the same journal, <i>comptologist</i> was suggested, followed next year by <i>hypologist</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-37"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup> The term <i>computics</i> has also been suggested.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-38"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup> In Europe, terms derived from contracted translations of the expression "automatic information" (e.g. "informazione automatica" in Italian) or "information and mathematics" are often used, e.g. <i>informatique</i> (French), <i>Informatik</i> (German), <i>informatica</i> (Italian, Dutch), <i>informática</i> (Spanish, Portuguese), <i>informatika</i> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>) or <i>pliroforiki</i> (<i>πληροφορική</i>, which means informatics) in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>. Similar words have also been adopted in the UK (as in <i>the School of Informatics of the University of Edinburgh</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-39"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>A folkloric quotation, often attributed to—but almost certainly not first formulated by—<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger Dijkstra</a>, states that "computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-40"><span>[</span>note 3<span>]</span></a></sup> The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">computer hardware</a> is usually considered part of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">computer engineering</a>, while the study of commercial <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_system" title="Computer system" class="mw-redirect">computer systems</a> and their deployment is often called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">information systems</a>. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research also often intersects other disciplines, such as <a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_statistics" title="Computational statistics">statistics</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>.</p>
<p>Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines, with some observers saying that computing is a mathematical science.<sup id="cite_ref-Denning_cs_discipline_12-1" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-Denning_cs_discipline-12"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>, and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">mathematical logic</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_theory" title="Category theory">category theory</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_theory" title="Domain theory">domain theory</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tedre2014_16-3" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-Tedre2014-16"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>The relationship between computer science and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a> is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineer#Use_of_the_title_.22Engineer.22" title="Software engineer">disputes</a> over what the term "software engineering" means, and how computer science is defined.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-41"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Parnas" title="David Parnas">David Parnas</a>, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-42"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_science" title="Computational science">computational science</a>. Both types of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Areas_of_computer_science">Areas of computer science</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Areas of computer science">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_computer_science" title="Outline of computer science">Outline of computer science</a></div>
<p>As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software.<sup id="cite_ref-CSAB1997_43-0" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-CSAB1997-43"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-44"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSAB_(professional_organization)" title="CSAB (professional organization)">CSAB</a>, formerly called <i>Computing Sciences Accreditation Board</i>—which is made up of representatives of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">Association for Computing Machinery</a> (ACM), and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society" title="IEEE Computer Society">IEEE Computer Society</a> (IEEE CS)<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-45"><span>[</span>42<span>]</span></a></sup>—identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: <i>theory of computation</i>, <i>algorithms and data structures</i>, <i>programming methodology and languages</i>, and <i>computer elements and architecture</i>. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, human–computer interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation as being important areas of computer science.<sup id="cite_ref-CSAB1997_43-1" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-CSAB1997-43"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Theoretical_computer_science">Theoretical computer science</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Theoretical computer science">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">Theoretical computer science</a></div>
<p>The broader field of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">theoretical computer science</a> encompasses both the classical theory of computation and a wide range of other topics that focus on the more abstract, logical, and mathematical aspects of computing.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Theory_of_computation">Theory of computation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Theory of computation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">Theory of computation</a></div>
<p>According to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_J._Denning" title="Peter J. Denning">Peter Denning</a>, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, "What can be (efficiently) automated?"<sup id="cite_ref-Denning_cs_discipline_12-2" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-Denning_cs_discipline-12"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> Theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer the first question, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">computability theory</a> examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_of_computation" title="Models of computation" class="mw-redirect">models of computation</a>. The second question is addressed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">computational complexity theory</a>, which studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a multitude of computational problems.</p>
<p>The famous <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P_versus_NP_problem" title="P versus NP problem">P = NP?</a> problem, one of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Prize_Problems" title="Millennium Prize Problems">Millennium Prize Problems</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-46"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup> is an open problem in the theory of computation.</p>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DFAexample.svg" class="image"><img alt="DFAexample.svg" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/DFAexample.svg/96px-DFAexample.svg.png" width="96" height="57" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/DFAexample.svg/144px-DFAexample.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/DFAexample.svg/192px-DFAexample.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="299" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wang_tiles.png" class="image"><img alt="Wang tiles.png" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Wang_tiles.png/96px-Wang_tiles.png" width="96" height="25" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Wang_tiles.png/144px-Wang_tiles.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Wang_tiles.png/192px-Wang_tiles.png 2x" data-file-width="502" data-file-height="130" /></a></td>
<td><b>P = NP?</b></td>
<td><b>GNITIRW-TERCES</b></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blochsphere.svg" class="image"><img alt="Blochsphere.svg" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Blochsphere.svg/96px-Blochsphere.svg.png" width="96" height="95" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Blochsphere.svg/144px-Blochsphere.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Blochsphere.svg/192px-Blochsphere.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="315" /></a></td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">Automata theory</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">Computability theory</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computer" title="Quantum computer" class="mw-redirect">Quantum computing theory</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Information_and_coding_theory">Information and coding theory</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Information and coding theory">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coding_theory" title="Coding theory">Coding theory</a></div>
<p>Information theory is related to the quantification of information. This was developed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a> to find fundamental limits on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">signal processing</a> operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-47"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></a></sup> Coding theory is the study of the properties of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code" title="Code">codes</a> (systems for converting information from one form to another) and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are used for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">data compression</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_detection_and_correction" title="Error detection and correction">error detection and correction</a>, and more recently also for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_network_coding" title="Linear network coding">network coding</a>. Codes are studied for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_transmission" title="Data transmission">data transmission</a> methods.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Algorithms_and_data_structures">Algorithms and data structures</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Algorithms and data structures">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Algorithms and data structures is the study of commonly used computational methods and their computational efficiency.</p>
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<td><img class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline tex" alt="O(n^2)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/math/1/8/9/189317b4b935a745fcfaf95940d2b4f0.png" /></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sorting_quicksort_anim.gif" class="image"><img alt="Sorting quicksort anim.gif" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Sorting_quicksort_anim.gif/96px-Sorting_quicksort_anim.gif" width="96" height="73" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Sorting_quicksort_anim.gif/144px-Sorting_quicksort_anim.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Sorting_quicksort_anim.gif/192px-Sorting_quicksort_anim.gif 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="214" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Singly_linked_list.png" class="image"><img alt="Singly linked list.png" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Singly_linked_list.png/96px-Singly_linked_list.png" width="96" height="11" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Singly_linked_list.png/144px-Singly_linked_list.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Singly_linked_list.png/192px-Singly_linked_list.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="34" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TSP_Deutschland_3.png" class="image"><img alt="TSP Deutschland 3.png" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/TSP_Deutschland_3.png/96px-TSP_Deutschland_3.png" width="96" height="103" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/TSP_Deutschland_3.png/144px-TSP_Deutschland_3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/TSP_Deutschland_3.png/192px-TSP_Deutschland_3.png 2x" data-file-width="328" data-file-height="352" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SimplexRangeSearching.png" class="image"><img alt="SimplexRangeSearching.png" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/SimplexRangeSearching.png/96px-SimplexRangeSearching.png" width="96" height="103" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/SimplexRangeSearching.png/144px-SimplexRangeSearching.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/SimplexRangeSearching.png/192px-SimplexRangeSearching.png 2x" data-file-width="429" data-file-height="462" /></a></td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms" title="Analysis of algorithms">Analysis of algorithms</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_structures" title="Data structures" class="mw-redirect">Data structures</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial_optimization" title="Combinatorial optimization">Combinatorial optimization</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">Computational geometry</a></td>
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</table>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Programming_language_theory">Programming language theory</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Programming language theory">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Programming language theory</a></div>
<p>Programming language theory is a branch of computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming languages</a> and their individual <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language#Elements" title="Programming language">features</a>. It falls within the discipline of computer science, both depending on and affecting <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>. It is an active research area, with numerous dedicated academic journals.</p>
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<td><img class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline tex" alt="\Gamma\vdash x: \text{Int}" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/math/e/a/b/eabbf66d59fba93b387bd69756c6a918.png" /></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Compiler.svg" class="image"><img alt="Compiler.svg" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Compiler.svg/96px-Compiler.svg.png" width="96" height="108" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Compiler.svg/144px-Compiler.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Compiler.svg/192px-Compiler.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="834" data-file-height="942" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Python_add5_syntax.svg" class="image"><img alt="Python add5 syntax.svg" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Python_add5_syntax.svg/96px-Python_add5_syntax.svg.png" width="96" height="72" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Python_add5_syntax.svg/144px-Python_add5_syntax.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Python_add5_syntax.svg/192px-Python_add5_syntax.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="602" data-file-height="449" /></a></td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler_construction" title="Compiler construction">Compiler design</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming languages</a></td>
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</table>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Formal_methods">Formal methods</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Formal methods">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></div>
<p>Formal methods are a particular kind of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematically</a> based technique for the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_specification" title="Formal specification">specification</a>, development and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_verification" title="Formal verification">verification</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a> systems. The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design. They form an important theoretical underpinning for software engineering, especially where safety or security is involved. Formal methods are a useful adjunct to software testing since they help avoid errors and can also give a framework for testing. For industrial use, tool support is required. However, the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only used in the development of high-integrity and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-critical_system" title="Life-critical system">life-critical systems</a>, where <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety" title="Safety">safety</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">security</a> is of utmost importance. Formal methods are best described as the application of a fairly broad variety of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">theoretical computer science</a> fundamentals, in particular <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">logic</a> calculi, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">formal languages</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">automata theory</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_semantics" title="Program semantics" class="mw-redirect">program semantics</a>, but also <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_systems" title="Type systems" class="mw-redirect">type systems</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_data_types" title="Algebraic data types" class="mw-redirect">algebraic data types</a> to problems in software and hardware specification and verification.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Applied_computer_science">Applied computer science</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Applied computer science">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Applied computer science aims at identifying certain computer science concepts that can be used directly in solving real world problems.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Artificial_intelligence">Artificial intelligence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Artificial intelligence">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></div>
<p>Artificial intelligence (AI) aims to or is required to synthesise goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, learning and communication found in humans and animals. From its origins in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a> and in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_artificial_intelligence" title="History of artificial intelligence">Dartmouth Conference</a> (1956), artificial intelligence research has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_mathematics" title="Applied mathematics">applied mathematics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">symbolic logic</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">neurophysiology</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">social intelligence</a>. AI is associated in the popular mind with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">robotic development</a>, but the main field of practical application has been as an embedded component in areas of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development" title="Software development">software development</a>, which require computational understanding. The starting-point in the late 1940s was <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>'s question "Can computers think?", and the question remains effectively unanswered although the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_test" title="Turing test">Turing test</a> is still used to assess computer output on the scale of human intelligence. But the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involving complex real-world data.</p>
<table style="border:1px solid #ccc; text-align:center; margin:auto;" cellspacing="15">
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png" class="image"><img alt="Nicolas P. Rougier's rendering of the human brain.png" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png/96px-Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png" width="96" height="72" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png/144px-Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png/192px-Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Human_eye,_rendered_from_Eye.png" class="image"><img alt="Human eye, rendered from Eye.png" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Human_eye%2C_rendered_from_Eye.png/96px-Human_eye%2C_rendered_from_Eye.png" width="96" height="96" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Human_eye%2C_rendered_from_Eye.png/144px-Human_eye%2C_rendered_from_Eye.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Human_eye%2C_rendered_from_Eye.png/192px-Human_eye%2C_rendered_from_Eye.png 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="567" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Corner.png" class="image"><img alt="Corner.png" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Corner.png/96px-Corner.png" width="96" height="83" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Corner.png/144px-Corner.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Corner.png/192px-Corner.png 2x" data-file-width="595" data-file-height="517" /></a></td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_processing" title="Image processing">Image processing</a></td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KnnClassification.svg" class="image"><img alt="KnnClassification.svg" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/KnnClassification.svg/96px-KnnClassification.svg.png" width="96" height="87" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/KnnClassification.svg/144px-KnnClassification.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/KnnClassification.svg/192px-KnnClassification.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="279" data-file-height="252" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Julia_iteration_data.png" class="image"><img alt="Julia iteration data.png" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Julia_iteration_data.png/96px-Julia_iteration_data.png" width="96" height="72" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Julia_iteration_data.png/144px-Julia_iteration_data.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Julia_iteration_data.png/192px-Julia_iteration_data.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sky.png" class="image"><img alt="Sky.png" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Sky.png/96px-Sky.png" width="96" height="48" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Sky.png/144px-Sky.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Sky.png/192px-Sky.png 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_recognition" title="Pattern recognition">Pattern recognition</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_computation" title="Evolutionary computation">Evolutionary computation</a></td>
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<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neuron.svg" class="image"><img alt="Neuron.svg" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Neuron.svg/96px-Neuron.svg.png" width="96" height="52" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Neuron.svg/144px-Neuron.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Neuron.svg/192px-Neuron.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="215" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:English.png" class="image"><img alt="English.png" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/English.png/96px-English.png" width="96" height="68" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/English.png/144px-English.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/English.png/192px-English.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="352" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HONDA_ASIMO.jpg" class="image"><img alt="HONDA ASIMO.jpg" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/HONDA_ASIMO.jpg/64px-HONDA_ASIMO.jpg" width="64" height="85" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/HONDA_ASIMO.jpg/96px-HONDA_ASIMO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/HONDA_ASIMO.jpg/128px-HONDA_ASIMO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a></td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation" title="Knowledge representation" class="mw-redirect">Knowledge representation</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">Robotics</a></td>
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</table>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Computer_architecture_and_engineering">Computer architecture and engineering</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Computer architecture and engineering">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></div>
<p>Computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It focuses largely on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-48"><span>[</span>45<span>]</span></a></sup> The field often involves disciplines of computer engineering and electrical engineering, selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance, and cost goals.</p>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NOR_ANSI.svg" class="image"><img alt="NOR ANSI.svg" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/NOR_ANSI.svg/96px-NOR_ANSI.svg.png" width="96" height="48" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/NOR_ANSI.svg/144px-NOR_ANSI.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/NOR_ANSI.svg/192px-NOR_ANSI.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="50" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fivestagespipeline.png" class="image"><img alt="Fivestagespipeline.png" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Fivestagespipeline.png/96px-Fivestagespipeline.png" width="96" height="28" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Fivestagespipeline.png/144px-Fivestagespipeline.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Fivestagespipeline.png/192px-Fivestagespipeline.png 2x" data-file-width="972" data-file-height="282" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SIMD.svg" class="image"><img alt="SIMD.svg" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/SIMD.svg/96px-SIMD.svg.png" width="96" height="96" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/SIMD.svg/144px-SIMD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/SIMD.svg/192px-SIMD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">Digital logic</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microarchitecture" title="Microarchitecture">Microarchitecture</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roomba_original.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Roomba original.jpg" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Roomba_original.jpg/96px-Roomba_original.jpg" width="96" height="88" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Roomba_original.jpg/144px-Roomba_original.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Roomba_original.jpg/192px-Roomba_original.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="737" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flowchart.png" class="image"><img alt="Flowchart.png" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Flowchart.png/96px-Flowchart.png" width="96" height="81" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Flowchart.png/144px-Flowchart.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Flowchart.png 2x" data-file-width="171" data-file-height="144" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Operating_system_placement.svg" class="image"><img alt="Operating system placement.svg" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Operating_system_placement.svg/96px-Operating_system_placement.svg.png" width="96" height="142" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Operating_system_placement.svg/144px-Operating_system_placement.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Operating_system_placement.svg/192px-Operating_system_placement.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="370" /></a></td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_architecture" title="Systems architecture">Systems architecture</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating systems</a></td>
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</table>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Computer_performance_analysis">Computer performance analysis</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Computer performance analysis">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_performance" title="Computer performance">Computer performance</a></div>
<p>Computer performance analysis is the study of work flowing through computers with the general goals of improving <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throughput" title="Throughput">throughput</a>, controlling <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Response_time_(technology)" title="Response time (technology)">response time</a>, using resources efficiently, eliminating <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottleneck_(software)" title="Bottleneck (software)">bottlenecks</a>, and predicting performance under anticipated peak loads.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-49"><span>[</span>46<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Computer_graphics_and_visualization">Computer graphics and visualization</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Computer graphics and visualization">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphics_(computer_science)" title="Computer graphics (computer science)">Computer graphics (computer science)</a></div>
<p>Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents, and involves synthesis and manipulation of image data. The study is connected to many other fields in computer science, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">computer vision</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_processing" title="Image processing">image processing</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">computational geometry</a>, and is heavily applied in the fields of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_effects" title="Special effects" class="mw-redirect">special effects</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_games" title="Video games" class="mw-redirect">video games</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Computer_security_and_cryptography">Computer security and cryptography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Computer security and cryptography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Computer security</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></div>
<p>Computer security is a branch of computer technology, whose objective includes protection of information from unauthorized access, disruption, or modification while maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended users. Cryptography is the practice and study of hiding (encryption) and therefore deciphering (decryption) information. Modern cryptography is largely related to computer science, for many encryption and decryption algorithms are based on their computational complexity.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Computational_science">Computational science</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Computational science">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_science" title="Computational science">Computational science</a> (or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_computing" title="Scientific computing" class="mw-redirect">scientific computing</a>) is the field of study concerned with constructing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">mathematical models</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">quantitative analysis</a> techniques and using computers to analyze and solve <a href="Science" title="Science">scientific</a> problems. In practical use, it is typically the application of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">computer simulation</a> and other forms of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a> to problems in various scientific disciplines.</p>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lorenz_attractor_yb.svg" class="image"><img alt="Lorenz attractor yb.svg" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Lorenz_attractor_yb.svg/96px-Lorenz_attractor_yb.svg.png" width="96" height="96" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Lorenz_attractor_yb.svg/144px-Lorenz_attractor_yb.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Lorenz_attractor_yb.svg/192px-Lorenz_attractor_yb.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="750" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quark_wiki.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Quark wiki.jpg" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Quark_wiki.jpg/96px-Quark_wiki.jpg" width="96" height="96" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Quark_wiki.jpg/144px-Quark_wiki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Quark_wiki.jpg/192px-Quark_wiki.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Naphthalene-3D-balls.png" class="image"><img alt="Naphthalene-3D-balls.png" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Naphthalene-3D-balls.png/96px-Naphthalene-3D-balls.png" width="96" height="73" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Naphthalene-3D-balls.png/144px-Naphthalene-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Naphthalene-3D-balls.png/192px-Naphthalene-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="837" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1u04-argonaute.png" class="image"><img alt="1u04-argonaute.png" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/1u04-argonaute.png/96px-1u04-argonaute.png" width="96" height="82" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/1u04-argonaute.png/144px-1u04-argonaute.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/1u04-argonaute.png/192px-1u04-argonaute.png 2x" data-file-width="996" data-file-height="849" /></a></td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">Numerical analysis</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational physics</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Computer_networks">Computer networks</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Computer networks">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></div>
<p>This branch of computer science aims to manage networks between computers worldwide.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Concurrent.2C_parallel_and_distributed_systems">Concurrent, parallel and distributed systems</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Concurrent, parallel and distributed systems">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">Concurrency (computer science)</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a></div>
<p>Concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other. A number of mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petri_net" title="Petri net">Petri nets</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_calculus" title="Process calculus">process calculi</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_random-access_machine" title="Parallel random-access machine">Parallel Random Access Machine</a> model. A distributed system extends the idea of concurrency onto multiple computers connected through a network. Computers within the same distributed system have their own private memory, and information is often exchanged among themselves to achieve a common goal.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Databases">Databases</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Databases">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database</a></div>
<p>A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data easily. Digital databases are managed using database management systems to store, create, maintain, and search data, through <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_model" title="Database model">database models</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Query_language" title="Query language">query languages</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Software_engineering">Software engineering</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Software engineering">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></div>
<div class="hatnote">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">Computer programming</a></div>
<p>Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying software in order to ensure it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and fast to build. It is a systematic approach to software design, involving the application of engineering practices to software. Software engineering deals with the organizing and analyzing of software—it doesn't just deal with the creation or manufacture of new software, but its internal maintenance and arrangement. Both computer applications software engineers and computer systems software engineers are projected to be among the fastest growing occupations from 2008 to 2018.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="The_great_insights_of_computer_science">The great insights of computer science</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: The great insights of computer science">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The philosopher of computing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_J._Rapaport" title="William J. Rapaport">Bill Rapaport</a> noted three <i>Great Insights of Computer Science</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-50"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>'s, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Boole" title="George Boole">George Boole</a>'s, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>'s, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a>'s, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a>'s insight: there are only <i>two objects</i> that a computer has to deal with in order to represent "anything".</li>
</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>All the information about any computable problem can be represented using only 0 and 1 (or any other bistable pair that can flip-flop between two easily distinguishable states, such as "on/off", "magnetized/de-magnetized", "high-voltage/low-voltage", etc.).</dd>
</dl>
</dd>
</dl>
<div class="hatnote">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_physics" title="Digital physics">Digital physics</a></div>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>'s insight: there are only <i>five actions</i> that a computer has to perform in order to do "anything".</li>
</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>Every algorithm can be expressed in a language for a computer consisting of only five basic instructions:
<ul>
<li>move left one location;</li>
<li>move right one location;</li>
<li>read symbol at current location;</li>
<li>print 0 at current location;</li>
<li>print 1 at current location.</li>
</ul>
</dd>
</dl>
</dd>
</dl>
<div class="hatnote">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_machine" title="Turing machine">Turing machine</a></div>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrado_B%C3%B6hm" title="Corrado Böhm">Corrado Böhm</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Giuseppe_Jacopini&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Giuseppe Jacopini (page does not exist)">Giuseppe Jacopini</a>'s insight: there are only <i>three ways of combining</i> these actions (into more complex ones) that are needed in order for a computer to do "anything".</li>
</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>Only three rules are needed to combine any set of basic instructions into more complex ones:
<ul>
<li><i>sequence</i>: first do this, then do that;</li>
<li><i>selection</i>: IF such-and-such is the case, THEN do this, ELSE do that;</li>
<li><i>repetition</i>: WHILE such-and-such is the case DO this.</li>
</ul>
</dd>
<dd>Note that the three rules of Boehm's and Jacopini's insight can be further simplified with the use of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goto" title="Goto">goto</a> (which means it is more elementary than <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">structured programming</a>).</dd>
</dl>
</dd>
</dl>
<div class="hatnote">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_function_arithmetic#Friedman.27s_grand_conjecture" title="Elementary function arithmetic">Elementary function arithmetic § Friedman's grand conjecture</a></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Academia">Academia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: Academia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_science_conferences" title="List of computer science conferences">List of computer science conferences</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Computer_science_journals" title="Category:Computer science journals">Category:Computer science journals</a></div>
<p>Conferences are important events for computer science research. During these conferences, researchers from the public and private sectors present their recent work and meet. Unlike in most other academic fields, in computer science, the prestige of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings" title="Proceedings">conference papers</a> is greater than that of journal publications.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-51"><span>[</span>48<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-52"><span>[</span>49<span>]</span></a></sup> One proposed explanation for this is the quick development of this relatively new field requires rapid review and distribution of results, a task better handled by conferences than by journals.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-53"><span>[</span>50<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Education">Education</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Education">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Since computer science is a relatively new field, it is not as widely taught in schools and universities as other academic subjects. For example, in 2014, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code.org" title="Code.org">Code.org</a> estimated that only 10 percent of high schools in the United States offered computer science education.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-54"><span>[</span>51<span>]</span></a></sup> A 2010 report by Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and Computer Science Teachers Association (CSTA) revealed that only 14 out of 50 states have adopted significant education standards for high school computer science.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-55"><span>[</span>52<span>]</span></a></sup> However, computer science education is growing. Some countries, such as Israel, New Zealand and South Korea, have already included computer science in their respective national secondary education curriculum.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-56"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-57"><span>[</span>54<span>]</span></a></sup> Several countries are following suit.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-58"><span>[</span>55<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>In most countries, there is a significant gender gap in computer science education. For example, in the US about 20% of computer science degrees in 2012 were conferred to women.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-59"><span>[</span>56<span>]</span></a></sup> This gender gap also exists in other Western countries.<sup id="cite_ref-gender_60-0" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-gender-60"><span>[</span>57<span>]</span></a></sup> However, in some parts of the world, the gap is small or nonexistent. In 2011, approximately half of all computer science degrees in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> were conferred to women.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-61"><span>[</span>58<span>]</span></a></sup> In 2001, women made up 54.5% of computer science graduates in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gender_60-1" class="reference"><a href="Computer_science#cite_note-gender-60"><span>[</span>57<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_computer_science" title="Outline of computer science">Outline of computer science</a></div>
<div class="noprint portal tright" style="border:solid #aaa 1px;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em">
<table style="background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;max-width:175px">
<tr style="vertical-align:middle">
<td style="text-align:center"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/28px-Internet_map_1024.jpg" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/42px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/56px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a></td>
<td style="padding:0 0.2em;vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Computer_science" title="Portal:Computer science">Computer science portal</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<div class="div-col columns column-count column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_genealogy_of_computer_scientists" title="Academic genealogy of computer scientists">Academic genealogy of computer scientists</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatics" title="Informatics">Informatics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_computer_science_departments" title="List of academic computer science departments">List of academic computer science departments</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists" title="List of computer scientists">List of computer scientists</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_computer_science" title="List of important publications in computer science">List of publications in computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">List of pioneers in computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_computer_science" title="List of unsolved problems in computer science">List of unsolved problems in computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_software_engineering" title="Outline of software engineering">Outline of software engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_transfer_in_computer_science" title="Technology transfer in computer science">Technology transfer in computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_Award" title="Turing Award">Turing Award</a></li>
</ul>
<p><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Open_book_nae_02.svg/16px-Open_book_nae_02.svg.png" width="16" height="9" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Open_book_nae_02.svg/24px-Open_book_nae_02.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Open_book_nae_02.svg/32px-Open_book_nae_02.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="209" /> <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book:Computer_science" title="Book:Computer science">Computer science</a></i> – <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Books" title="Wikipedia:Books">Wikipedia book</a></p>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In 1851</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The introduction of punched cards into the new engine was important not only as a more convenient form of control than the drums, or because programs could now be of unlimited extent, and could be stored and repeated without the danger of introducing errors in setting the machine by hand; it was important also because it served to crystallize Babbage's feeling that he had invented something really new, something much more than a sophisticated calculating machine." <a href="Computer_science#COLLIER">Bruce Collier</a>, 1970</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the entry "<a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Computer_science" class="extiw" title="q:Computer science">Computer science</a>" on Wikiquote for the history of this quotation.</span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=computer%20scientist">"WordNet Search—3.1"</a>. Wordnetweb.princeton.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-05-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=WordNet+Search%943.1&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwordnetweb.princeton.edu%2Fperl%2Fwebwn%3Fs%3Dcomputer%2520scientist&amp;rft.pub=Wordnetweb.princeton.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Pascal.html">"Blaise Pascal"</a>. School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=Blaise+Pascal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FPascal.html&amp;rft.pub=School+of+Mathematics+and+Statistics+University+of+St+Andrews%2C+Scotland&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.royalsociety.org/history-of-science/2012/06/25/history-of-computing/">"A Brief History of Computing"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Computing&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.royalsociety.org%2Fhistory-of-science%2F2012%2F06%2F25%2Fhistory-of-computing%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060908054017/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/babbage/index.asp">"Science Museum—Introduction to Babbage"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/babbage/index.asp">the original</a> on 2006-09-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-09-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=Science+Museum%94Introduction+to+Babbage&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemuseum.org.uk%2Fon-line%2Fbabbage%2Findex.asp&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Hyman1982-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-Hyman1982_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-Hyman1982_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Anthony Hyman (1982). <i>Charles Babbage, pioneer of the computer</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.au=Anthony+Hyman&amp;rft.btitle=Charles+Babbage%2C+pioneer+of+the+computer&amp;rft.date=1982&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/20060210172109/http://www.scottlan.edu:80/lriddle/women/ada-love.htm">"A Selection and Adaptation From Ada's Notes found in Ada, The Enchantress of Numbers," by Betty Alexandra Toole Ed.D. Strawberry Press, Mill Valley, CA"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scottlan.edu/Lriddle/women/ada-love.htm">the original</a> on 10 February 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=A+Selection+and+Adaptation+From+Ada%27s+Notes+found+in+Ada%2C+The+Enchantress+of+Numbers%2C%22+by+Betty+Alexandra+Toole+Ed.D.+Strawberry+Press%2C+Mill+Valley%2C+CA&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scottlan.edu%2FLriddle%2Fwomen%2Fada-love.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"In this sense Aiken needed IBM, whose technology included the use of punched cards, the accumulation of numerical data, and the transfer of numerical data from one register to another", <a href="Computer_science#AIKEN">Bernard Cohen</a>, p.44 (2000)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Computer_science#ORIGINS">Brian Randell</a>, p. 187, 1975</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">Association for Computing Machinery</a> (ACM) was founded in 1947.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Denning_cs_discipline-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-Denning_cs_discipline_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-Denning_cs_discipline_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-Denning_cs_discipline_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_J._Denning" title="Peter J. Denning">Denning, Peter J.</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060525195404/http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf">"Computer Science: The Discipline"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Encyclopedia of Computer Science</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf">the original</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> on 2006-05-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=Computer+Science%3A+The+Discipline&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&amp;rft.aulast=Denning&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.idi.ntnu.no%2Femner%2Fdif8916%2Fdenning.pdf&amp;rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+Computer+Science&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/conference/EDSAC99/statistics.html">"Some EDSAC statistics"</a>. Cl.cam.ac.uk<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-11-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=Some+EDSAC+statistics&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cl.cam.ac.uk%2Fconference%2FEDSAC99%2Fstatistics.html&amp;rft.pub=Cl.cam.ac.uk&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.purdue.edu/about/conte.html">"Computer science pioneer Samuel D. Conte dies at 85"</a>. Purdue Computer Science. July 1, 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 12,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=Computer+science+pioneer+Samuel+D.+Conte+dies+at+85&amp;rft.date=2002-07-01&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.purdue.edu%2Fabout%2Fconte.html&amp;rft.pub=Purdue+Computer+Science&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Levy1984-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-Levy1984_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-Levy1984_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Levy" title="Steven Levy">Levy, Steven</a> (1984). <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackers:_Heroes_of_the_Computer_Revolution" title="Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution">Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution</a></i>. Doubleday. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-19195-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-19195-2">0-385-19195-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Steven&amp;rft.aulast=Levy&amp;rft.btitle=Hackers%3A+Heroes+of+the+Computer+Revolution&amp;rft.date=1984&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-385-19195-2&amp;rft.pub=Doubleday&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Tedre2014-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-Tedre2014_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-Tedre2014_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-Tedre2014_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-Tedre2014_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Tedre, Matti (2014). <i>The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline</i>. Taylor and Francis / CRC Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Matti&amp;rft.aulast=Tedre&amp;rft.btitle=The+Science+of+Computing%3A+Shaping+a+Discipline&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis+%2F+CRC+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/computer-graphics-music-and-art/15/222/633">"IBM 704 Electronic Data Processing System—CHM Revolution"</a>. Computerhistory.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-07-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=IBM+704+Electronic+Data+Processing+System%94CHM+Revolution&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Frevolution%2Fcomputer-graphics-music-and-art%2F15%2F222%2F633&amp;rft.pub=Computerhistory.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/text/IBM/IBM.709.1957.102646304.pdf">"IBM 709: a powerful new data processing system"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. Computer History Museum<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 12,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=IBM+709%3A+a+powerful+new+data+processing+system&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.computerhistory.org%2Fresources%2Ftext%2FIBM%2FIBM.709.1957.102646304.pdf&amp;rft.pub=Computer+History+Museum&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/computers/">"Timeline of Computer History"</a>. Computer History Museum<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 24,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=Timeline+of+Computer+History&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Ftimeline%2Fcomputers%2F&amp;rft.pub=Computer+History+Museum&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-kahnbook-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-kahnbook_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-kahnbook_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Kahn_(writer)" title="David Kahn (writer)">David Kahn</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Codebreakers" title="The Codebreakers">The Codebreakers</a>, 1967, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0684831309" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-684-83130-9</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-bgu-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-bgu_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-bgu_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.cis.cornell.edu/Dean/Presentations/Slides/bgu.pdf">http://www.cis.cornell.edu/Dean/Presentations/Slides/bgu.pdf</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title="&#160;since December 2014">dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Constable, R. L. (March 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/bgu.pdf">"Computer Science: Achievements and Challenges circa 2000"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=Computer+Science%3A+Achievements+and+Challenges+circa+2000&amp;rft.au=Constable%2C+R.+L.&amp;rft.date=2000-03&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.cornell.edu%2Fcis-dean%2Fbgu.pdf&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_Abelson" title="Hal Abelson">Abelson, H.</a>; G.J. Sussman with J. Sussman (1996). <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_and_Interpretation_of_Computer_Programs" title="Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs">Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs</a></i> (2nd ed.). MIT Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-01153-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-01153-0">0-262-01153-0</a>. <q>The computer revolution is a revolution in the way we think and in the way we express what we think. The essence of this change is the emergence of what might best be called <i>procedural epistemology</i> — the study of the structure of knowledge from an imperative point of view, as opposed to the more declarative point of view taken by classical mathematical subjects.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=H.&amp;rft.au=G.J.+Sussman+with+J.+Sussman&amp;rft.aulast=Abelson&amp;rft.btitle=Structure+and+Interpretation+of+Computer+Programs&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-262-01153-0&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/20141008080148/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/money/main.jhtml?xml=/money/2006/08/27/ccsoft27.xml">"Black box traders are on the march"</a>. <i>The Telegraph</i>. August 26, 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/money/main.jhtml?xml=/money/2006/08/27/ccsoft27.xml">the original</a> on 8 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=Black+box+traders+are+on+the+march&amp;rft.date=2006-08-26&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fmoney%2Fmain.jhtml%3Fxml%3D%2Fmoney%2F2006%2F08%2F27%2Fccsoft27.xml&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1686004">"The Impact of High Frequency Trading on an Electronic Market"</a>. Papers.ssrn.com. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.1686004">10.2139/ssrn.1686004</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-05-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=The+Impact+of+High+Frequency+Trading+on+an+Electronic+Market&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1686004&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.1686004&amp;rft.pub=Papers.ssrn.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Maly, Timy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wired.com/2013/01/kickstarted-scifi-movie/">"How Digital Filmmakers Produced a Gorgeous Sci-Fi Movie on a Kickstarter Budget"</a>. Wired<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 24,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Timy&amp;rft.aulast=Maly&amp;rft.btitle=How+Digital+Filmmakers+Produced+a+Gorgeous+Sci-Fi+Movie+on+a+Kickstarter+Budget&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2013%2F01%2Fkickstarted-scifi-movie%2F&amp;rft.pub=Wired&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Matthau, Charles. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wired.com/insights/2015/01/how-tech-shaped-film-making/">"How Tech Has Shaped Film Making: The Film vs. Digital Debate Is Put to Rest"</a>. Wired<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 24,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Charles&amp;rft.aulast=Matthau&amp;rft.btitle=How+Tech+Has+Shaped+Film+Making%3A+The+Film+vs.+Digital+Debate+Is+Put+to+Rest&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Finsights%2F2015%2F01%2Fhow-tech-shaped-film-making%2F&amp;rft.pub=Wired&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation conference">Wegner, P. (October 13–15, 1976). <i>Research paradigms in computer science—Proceedings of the 2nd international Conference on Software Engineering</i>. San Francisco, California, United States: IEEE Computer Society Press, Los Alamitos, CA.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.au=Wegner%2C+P.&amp;rft.btitle=Research+paradigms+in+computer+science%94Proceedings+of+the+2nd+international+Conference+on+Software+Engineering&amp;rft.date=1976-10-13%2F1976-10-15&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California%2C+United+States&amp;rft.pub=IEEE+Computer+Society+Press%2C+Los+Alamitos%2C+CA&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Denning, P. J.; Comer, D. E.; Gries, D.; Mulder, M. C.; Tucker, A.; Turner, A. J.; Young, P. R. (Jan 1989). "Computing as a discipline". <i>Communications of the ACM</i> <b>32</b>: 9–23. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F63238.63239">10.1145/63238.63239</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=Computing+as+a+discipline&amp;rft.au=Comer%2C+D.+E.&amp;rft.aufirst=P.+J.&amp;rft.au=Gries%2C+D.&amp;rft.aulast=Denning&amp;rft.au=Mulder%2C+M.+C.&amp;rft.au=Tucker%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Turner%2C+A.+J.&amp;rft.au=Young%2C+P.+R.&amp;rft.date=1989-01&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F63238.63239&amp;rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&amp;rft.pages=9-23&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=32" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Eden, A. H. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eden-study.org/articles/2007/three_paradigms_of_computer_science.pdf">"Three Paradigms of Computer Science"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minds_and_Machines" title="Minds and Machines">Minds and Machines</a></i> <b>17</b> (2): 135–167. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11023-007-9060-8">10.1007/s11023-007-9060-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=Three+Paradigms+of+Computer+Science&amp;rft.aufirst=A.+H.&amp;rft.aulast=Eden&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eden-study.org%2Farticles%2F2007%2Fthree_paradigms_of_computer_science.pdf&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11023-007-9060-8&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.jtitle=Minds+and+Machines&amp;rft.pages=135-167&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=17" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Fine_1959-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-Fine_1959_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-Fine_1959_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Louis Fine (1959). "The Role of the University in Computers, Data Processing, and Related Fields". <i>Communications of the ACM</i> <b>2</b> (9): 7–14. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F368424.368427">10.1145/368424.368427</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=The+Role+of+the+University+in+Computers%2C+Data+Processing%2C+and+Related+Fields&amp;rft.au=Louis+Fine&amp;rft.date=1959&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F368424.368427&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&amp;rft.pages=7-14&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=2" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.stanford.edu/guides/stanford-university-oral-history">"Stanford University Oral History"</a>. Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 30,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+University+Oral+History&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.stanford.edu%2Fguides%2Fstanford-university-oral-history&amp;rft.pub=Stanford+University&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald Knuth</a> (1972). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/dept/ICME/docs/history/forsythe_knuth.pdf">"George Forsythe and the Development of Computer Science"</a>.</i> Comms. ACM<i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140812013839/http://www.stanford.edu/dept/ICME/docs/history/forsythe_knuth.pdf">Archived</a> August 12, 2014 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Matti Tedre (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://epublications.uef.fi/pub/urn_isbn_952-458-867-6/urn_isbn_952-458-867-6.pdf">"The Development of Computer Science: A Sociocultural Perspective"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. p.&#160;260<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 12,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.au=Matti+Tedre&amp;rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Computer+Science%3A+A+Sociocultural+Perspective&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fepublications.uef.fi%2Fpub%2Furn_isbn_952-458-867-6%2Furn_isbn_952-458-867-6.pdf&amp;rft.pages=260&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Peter Naur (1966). "The science of datalogy". <i>Communications of the ACM</i> <b>9</b> (7): 485. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F365719.366510">10.1145/365719.366510</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=The+science+of+datalogy&amp;rft.au=Peter+Naur&amp;rft.date=1966&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F365719.366510&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&amp;rft.pages=485&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=9" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Weiss, E. A.; Corley, Henry P. T. "Communications of the ACM". <i>Communications of the ACM</i> <b>1</b> (4): 6. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F368796.368802">10.1145/368796.368802</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&amp;rft.au=Corley%2C+Henry+P.+T.&amp;rft.aufirst=E.+A.&amp;rft.aulast=Weiss&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F368796.368802&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&amp;rft.pages=6&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=1" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Communications of the ACM 2(1):p.4</span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. Mounier-Kuhn, <i>L'Informatique en France, de la seconde guerre mondiale au Plan Calcul. L'émergence d'une science</i>, Paris, PUPS, 2010, ch. 3 &amp; 4.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Tedre, M. (2011). "Computing as a Science: A Survey of Competing Viewpoints". <i>Minds and Machines</i> <b>21</b> (3): 361–387. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11023-011-9240-4">10.1007/s11023-011-9240-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=Computing+as+a+Science%3A+A+Survey+of+Competing+Viewpoints&amp;rft.aufirst=M.&amp;rft.aulast=Tedre&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11023-011-9240-4&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.jtitle=Minds+and+Machines&amp;rft.pages=361-387&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=21" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Parnas, D. L. (1998). "Software engineering programmes are not computer science programmes". <i>Annals of Software Engineering</i> <b>6</b>: 19–37. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1018949113292">10.1023/A:1018949113292</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=Software+engineering+programmes+are+not+computer+science+programmes&amp;rft.aufirst=D.+L.&amp;rft.aulast=Parnas&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1018949113292&amp;rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Software+Engineering&amp;rft.pages=19-37&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=6" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>, p. 19: "Rather than treat software engineering as a subfield of computer science, I treat it as an element of the set, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, […]"</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-CSAB1997-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-CSAB1997_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-CSAB1997_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Computing Sciences Accreditation Board (May 28, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080617030847/http://www.csab.org/comp_sci_profession.html">"Computer Science as a Profession"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csab.org/comp_sci_profession.html">the original</a> on 2008-06-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-05-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.au=Computing+Sciences+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.btitle=Computer+Science+as+a+Profession&amp;rft.date=1997-05-28&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csab.org%2Fcomp_sci_profession.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Committee on the Fundamentals of Computer Science: Challenges and Opportunities, National Research Council (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11106#toc"><i>Computer Science: Reflections on the Field, Reflections from the Field</i></a>. National Academies Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-09301-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-09301-9">978-0-309-09301-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.au=Committee+on+the+Fundamentals+of+Computer+Science%3A+Challenges+and+Opportunities%2C+National+Research+Council&amp;rft.btitle=Computer+Science%3A+Reflections+on+the+Field%2C+Reflections+from+the+Field&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fcatalog.php%3Frecord_id%3D11106%23toc&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-309-09301-9&amp;rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">P. Collins, Graham (October 14, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=claude-e-shannon-founder">"Claude E. Shannon: Founder of Information Theory"</a>. Scientific American<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 12,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Graham&amp;rft.aulast=P.+Collins&amp;rft.btitle=Claude+E.+Shannon%3A+Founder+of+Information+Theory&amp;rft.date=2002-10-14&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Dclaude-e-shannon-founder&amp;rft.pub=Scientific+American&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">A. Thisted, Ronald (April 7, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://galton.uchicago.edu/~thisted/Distribute/comparch.pdf">"Computer Architecture"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. The University of Chicago.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Ronald&amp;rft.aulast=A.+Thisted&amp;rft.btitle=Computer+Architecture&amp;rft.date=1997-04-07&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgalton.uchicago.edu%2F~thisted%2FDistribute%2Fcomparch.pdf&amp;rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Wescott, Bob (2013). <i>The Every Computer Performance Book, Chapter 3: Useful laws</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CreateSpace" title="CreateSpace" class="mw-redirect">CreateSpace</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1482657759" title="Special:BookSources/1482657759">1482657759</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Bob&amp;rft.aulast=Wescott&amp;rft.btitle=The+Every+Computer+Performance+Book%2C+Chapter+3%3A+Useful+laws&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=1482657759&amp;rft.pub=CreateSpace&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/computation.html">"What Is Computation?"</a>. <i>buffalo.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=What+Is+Computation%3F&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cse.buffalo.edu%2F~rapaport%2Fcomputation.html&amp;rft.jtitle=buffalo.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Meyer, Bertrand (April 2009). "Viewpoint: Research evaluation for computer science". <i>Communications of the ACM</i> <b>25</b> (4): 31–34. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F1498765.1498780">10.1145/1498765.1498780</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=Viewpoint%3A+Research+evaluation+for+computer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Bertrand&amp;rft.aulast=Meyer&amp;rft.date=2009-04&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1498765.1498780&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&amp;rft.pages=31-34&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=25" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Patterson, David (August 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cra.org/resources/bp-view/evaluating_computer_scientists_and_engineers_for_promotion_and_tenure/">"Evaluating Computer Scientists and Engineers For Promotion and Tenure"</a>. Computing Research Association.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft.aulast=Patterson&amp;rft.btitle=Evaluating+Computer+Scientists+and+Engineers+For+Promotion+and+Tenure&amp;rft.date=1999-08&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcra.org%2Fresources%2Fbp-view%2Fevaluating_computer_scientists_and_engineers_for_promotion_and_tenure%2F&amp;rft.pub=Computing+Research+Association&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Fortnow, Lance (August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cacm.acm.org/magazines/2009/8/34492-viewpoint-time-for-computer-science-to-grow-up/fulltext">"Viewpoint: Time for Computer Science to Grow Up"</a>. <i>Communications of the ACM</i> <b>52</b> (8): 33–35. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F1536616.1536631">10.1145/1536616.1536631</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=Viewpoint%3A+Time+for+Computer+Science+to+Grow+Up&amp;rft.aufirst=Lance&amp;rft.aulast=Fortnow&amp;rft.date=2009-08&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcacm.acm.org%2Fmagazines%2F2009%2F8%2F34492-viewpoint-time-for-computer-science-to-grow-up%2Ffulltext&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1536616.1536631&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&amp;rft.pages=33-35&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=52" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2014/02/26/22computer_ep.h33.html">"Computer Science: Not Just an Elective Anymore"</a>. <i>Education Week</i>. February 25, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=Computer+Science%3A+Not+Just+an+Elective+Anymore&amp;rft.date=2014-02-25&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edweek.org%2Few%2Farticles%2F2014%2F02%2F26%2F22computer_ep.h33.html&amp;rft.jtitle=Education+Week&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://runningonempty.acm.org/fullreport2.pdf">"Running On Empty"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=Running+On+Empty&amp;rft.date=2010-10&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frunningonempty.acm.org%2Ffullreport2.pdf&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/news/international/21601250-global-push-more-computer-science-classrooms-starting-bear-fruit">"A is for algorithm"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. April 26, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=A+is+for+algorithm&amp;rft.date=2014-04-26&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Finternational%2F21601250-global-push-more-computer-science-classrooms-starting-bear-fruit&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Economist&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computingatschool.org.uk/data/uploads/internationalcomparisons-v5.pdf">"Computing at School International comparisons"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=Computing+at+School+International+comparisons&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computingatschool.org.uk%2Fdata%2Fuploads%2Finternationalcomparisons-v5.pdf&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/24/world/europe/adding-coding-to-the-curriculum.html">"Adding Coding to the Curriculum"</a>. <i>New York Times</i>. March 23, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.atitle=Adding+Coding+to+the+Curriculum&amp;rft.date=2014-03-23&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2014%2F03%2F24%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Fadding-coding-to-the-curriculum.html&amp;rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.randalolson.com/2014/06/14/percentage-of-bachelors-degrees-conferred-to-women-by-major-1970-2012/">"IT gender gap: Where are the female programmers?"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=IT+gender+gap%3A+Where+are+the+female+programmers%3F&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.randalolson.com%2F2014%2F06%2F14%2Fpercentage-of-bachelors-degrees-conferred-to-women-by-major-1970-2012%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-gender-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-gender_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-gender_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.techrepublic.com/blog/software-engineer/it-gender-gap-where-are-the-female-programmers/">"IT gender gap: Where are the female programmers?"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=IT+gender+gap%3A+Where+are+the+female+programmers%3F&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.techrepublic.com%2Fblog%2Fsoftware-engineer%2Fit-gender-gap-where-are-the-female-programmers%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="Computer_science#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/faculty/mariacharles/documents/WhatGenderisScience.pdf">"what gender is science"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.btitle=what+gender+is+science&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.soc.ucsb.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fmariacharles%2Fdocuments%2FWhatGenderisScience.pdf&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<dl>
<dt>Overview</dt>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Allen_B._Tucker&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Allen B. Tucker (page does not exist)">Tucker, Allen B.</a> (2004). <i>Computer Science Handbook</i> (2nd ed.). Chapman and Hall/CRC. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58488-360-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-58488-360-X">1-58488-360-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Allen+B.&amp;rft.aulast=Tucker&amp;rft.btitle=Computer+Science+Handbook&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=1-58488-360-X&amp;rft.pub=Chapman+and+Hall%2FCRC&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>
<ul>
<li>"Within more than 70 chapters, every one new or significantly revised, one can find any kind of information and references about computer science one can imagine. […] all in all, there is absolute nothing about Computer Science that can not be found in the 2.5 kilogram-encyclopaedia with its 110 survey articles […]." (Christoph Meinel, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zentralblatt_MATH" title="Zentralblatt MATH">Zentralblatt MATH</a></i>)</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_van_Leeuwen" title="Jan van Leeuwen">van Leeuwen, Jan</a> (1994). <i>Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science</i>. The MIT Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-72020-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-72020-5">0-262-72020-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Jan&amp;rft.aulast=van+Leeuwen&amp;rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Theoretical+Computer+Science&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-262-72020-5&amp;rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>
<ul>
<li>"[…] this set is the most unique and possibly the most useful to the [theoretical computer science] community, in support both of teaching and research […]. The books can be used by anyone wanting simply to gain an understanding of one of these areas, or by someone desiring to be in research in a topic, or by instructors wishing to find timely information on a subject they are teaching outside their major areas of expertise." (Rocky Ross, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIGACT_News" title="SIGACT News" class="mw-redirect">SIGACT News</a></i>)</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anthony_Ralston&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Anthony Ralston (page does not exist)">Ralston, Anthony</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edwin_D._Reilly&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Edwin D. Reilly (page does not exist)">Reilly, Edwin D.</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Hemmendinger&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="David Hemmendinger (page does not exist)">Hemmendinger, David</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.acm.org/ralston.cfm"><i>Encyclopedia of Computer Science</i></a> (4th ed.). Grove's Dictionaries. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56159-248-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-56159-248-X">1-56159-248-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Anthony&amp;rft.au=Hemmendinger%2C+David&amp;rft.aulast=Ralston&amp;rft.au=Reilly%2C+Edwin+D.&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Computer+Science&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.edition=4th&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.acm.org%2Fralston.cfm&amp;rft.isbn=1-56159-248-X&amp;rft.pub=Grove%27s+Dictionaries&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>
<ul>
<li>"Since 1976, this has been the definitive reference work on computer, computing, and computer science. […] Alphabetically arranged and classified into broad subject areas, the entries cover hardware, computer systems, information and data, software, the mathematics of computing, theory of computation, methodologies, applications, and computing milieu. The editors have done a commendable job of blending historical perspective and practical reference information. The encyclopedia remains essential for most public and academic library reference collections." (Joe Accardin, Northeastern Illinois Univ., Chicago)</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Edwin D. Reilly (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JTYPKxug49IC&amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false"><i>Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57356-521-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57356-521-9">978-1-57356-521-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.au=Edwin+D.+Reilly&amp;rft.btitle=Milestones+in+Computer+Science+and+Information+Technology&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJTYPKxug49IC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-57356-521-9&amp;rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
</ul>
<dl>
<dt>Selected papers</dt>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Knuth, Donald E.</a> (1996). <i>Selected Papers on Computer Science</i>. CSLI Publications, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+E.&amp;rft.aulast=Knuth&amp;rft.btitle=Selected+Papers+on+Computer+Science&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=CSLI+Publications%2C+Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="COLLIER" class="citation book">Collier, Bruce. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://robroy.dyndns.info/collier/index.html"><i>The little engine that could've: The calculating machines of Charles Babbage</i></a>. Garland Publishing Inc. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8240-0043-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8240-0043-9">0-8240-0043-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Bruce&amp;rft.aulast=Collier&amp;rft.btitle=The+little+engine+that+could%27ve%3A+The+calculating+machines+of+Charles+Babbage&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frobroy.dyndns.info%2Fcollier%2Findex.html&amp;rft.isbn=0-8240-0043-9&amp;rft.pub=Garland+Publishing+Inc&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="HAIKEN" class="citation book">Cohen, Bernard (2000). <i>Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer</i>. The MIT press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2625317-9-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2625317-9-5">978-0-2625317-9-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Bernard&amp;rft.aulast=Cohen&amp;rft.btitle=Howard+Aiken%2C+Portrait+of+a+computer+pioneer&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-2625317-9-5&amp;rft.pub=The+MIT+press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Tedre, Matti (2014). <i>The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline</i>. CRC Press, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor &amp; Francis">Taylor &amp; Francis</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Matti&amp;rft.aulast=Tedre&amp;rft.btitle=The+Science+of+Computing%3A+Shaping+a+Discipline&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press%2C+Taylor+%26+Francis&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Randell, Brian (1973). <i>The origins of Digital computers, Selected Papers</i>. Springer-Verlag. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-06169-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-06169-X">3-540-06169-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+science&amp;rft.aufirst=Brian&amp;rft.aulast=Randell&amp;rft.btitle=The+origins+of+Digital+computers%2C+Selected+Papers&amp;rft.date=1973&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3-540-06169-X&amp;rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>
<ul>
<li>"Covering a period from 1966 to 1993, its interest lies not only in the content of each of these papers — still timely today — but also in their being put together so that ideas expressed at different times complement each other nicely." (N. Bernard, <i>Zentralblatt MATH</i>)</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<dl>
<dt>Articles</dt>
</dl>
<ul>
<li>Peter J. Denning. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1053309&amp;coll=&amp;dl=ACM&amp;CFID=15151515&amp;CFTOKEN=6184618">Is computer science science?</a></i>, Communications of the ACM, April 2005.</li>
<li>Peter J. Denning, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=971303&amp;dl=ACM&amp;coll=&amp;CFID=15151515&amp;CFTOKEN=6184618">Great principles in computing curricula</a></i>, Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 2004.</li>
<li>Research evaluation for computer science, Informatics Europe <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eqanie.eu/media/Como%20Conference/Tanca-Research_Assessment_A_new_Initiative_by_Informatics_Europe.pdf">report</a>. Shorter journal version: Bertrand Meyer, Christine Choppy, Jan van Leeuwen and Jorgen Staunstrup, <i>Research evaluation for computer science</i>, in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_of_the_ACM" title="Communications of the ACM">Communications of the ACM</a>, vol. 52, no. 4, pp.&#160;31–34, April 2009.</li>
</ul>
<dl>
<dt>Curriculum and classification</dt>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">Association for Computing Machinery</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acm.org/class/1998/overview.html">1998 ACM Computing Classification System</a>. 1998.</li>
<li>Joint Task Force of Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Information_Systems" title="Association for Information Systems">Association for Information Systems</a> (AIS) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society" title="IEEE Computer Society">IEEE Computer Society</a> (IEEE CS). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acm.org/education/curric_vols/CC2005-March06Final.pdf">Computing Curricula 2005: The Overview Report</a>. September 30, 2005.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Gibbs" title="Norman Gibbs" class="mw-redirect">Norman Gibbs</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Tucker" title="Allen Tucker">Allen Tucker</a>. "A model curriculum for a liberal arts degree in computer science". <i>Communications of the ACM</i>, Volume 29 Issue 3, March 1986.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table class="metadata plainlinks mbox-small" style="padding:0.25em 0.5em 0.5em 0.75em;border:1px solid #aaa;background:#f9f9f9;">
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<td colspan="2" style="padding-bottom:0.75em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;">
<div style="clear:both;">Find more about<br />
<b>Computer science</b><br />
at Wikipedia's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div>
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<td style="padding-top:0.75em;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Computer_science" title="Search Wiktionary"><img alt="Search Wiktionary" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg/23px-Wiktionary-logo-en.svg.png" width="23" height="25" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg/35px-Wiktionary-logo-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg/46px-Wiktionary-logo-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1089" /></a></td>
<td style="padding-top:0.75em;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Computer_science" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Computer science">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</td>
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<tr style="height:25px;">
<td><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Computer_science" title="Search Commons"><img alt="Search Commons" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="18" height="25" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/37px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Computer_science" class="extiw" title="c:Special:Search/Computer science">Media</a> from Commons</td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Computer_science" title="Search Wikinews"><img alt="Search Wikinews" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/25px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" width="25" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/38px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/50px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Computer_science" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Computer science">News stories</a> from Wikinews</td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Computer_science" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Computer science">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Computer_science" title="Search Wikisource"><img alt="Search Wikisource" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="24" height="25" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/48px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Computer_science" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Computer science">Source texts</a> from Wikisource</td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Computer_science" title="Search Wikibooks"><img alt="Search Wikibooks" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/25px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" width="25" height="25" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/50px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Computer_science" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Computer science">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</td>
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<td><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Computer_science" title="Search Wikiversity"><img alt="Search Wikiversity" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg/25px-Wikiversity-logo-en.svg.png" width="25" height="23" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg/38px-Wikiversity-logo-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg/50px-Wikiversity-logo-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="900" /></a></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Computer_science" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Computer science">Learning resources</a> from Wikiversity</td>
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<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks infobox" style="float:right;clear:right;width:auto;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%">
<tr>
<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:LIBRARY" title="Wikipedia:LIBRARY" class="mw-redirect">Library resources</a> about<br />
<b>Computer science</b>
<hr /></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="plainlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;text-align:left;">
<ul>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&amp;su=Computer+science">Resources in your library</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&amp;su=Computer+science&amp;library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Computer_Science/">Computer science</a> at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DMOZ" title="DMOZ">DMOZ</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/compsci_soc.html">Scholarly Societies in Computer Science</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fjMU-km-Cso">What is Computer Science?</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jeffhuang.com/best_paper_awards.html">Best Papers Awards in Computer Science since 1996</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://se.ethz.ch/~meyer/gallery/">Photographs of computer scientists</a> by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Meyer" title="Bertrand Meyer">Bertrand Meyer</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/department/history.shtml">EECS.berkeley.edu</a></li>
</ul>
<dl>
<dt>Bibliography and academic search engines</dt>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/">CiteSeer<sup><i>x</i></sup></a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX" title="CiteSeerX" class="mw-redirect">article</a>): search engine, digital library and repository for scientific and academic papers with a focus on computer and information science.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dblp.uni-trier.de/">DBLP Computer Science Bibliography</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Bibliography_%26_Library_Project" title="Digital Bibliography &amp; Library Project" class="mw-redirect">article</a>): computer science bibliography website hosted at Universität Trier, in Germany.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://liinwww.ira.uka.de/bibliography/">The Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collection_of_Computer_Science_Bibliographies" title="Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies">article</a>)</li>
</ul>
<dl>
<dt>Professional organizations</dt>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acm.org/">Association for Computing Machinery</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computer.org/">IEEE Computer Society</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.informatics-europe.org/">Informatics Europe</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaai.org/home.html">AAAI</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://membercentral.aaas.org/categories/computer-science">AAAS Computer Science</a></li>
</ul>
<dl>
<dt>Misc</dt>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cs.stackexchange.com/">Computer Science—Stack Exchange</a>: a community-run question-and-answer site for computer science</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.bu.edu/AboutCS/WhatIsCS.pdf">What is computer science</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.mtu.edu/~john/jenning.pdf">Is computer science science?</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.researchgate.net/publication/285345329_Software_researchers_practising_bad_science_by_relying_on_untestedunproven_flawed_conceptsdefinitions">Software researchers practising bad science by relying on untested/unproven flawed concepts/definitions</a></li>
</ul>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
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<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Computer_science" title="Template:Computer science"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Computer_science" title="Template talk:Computer science"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Computer_science&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%">Major fields of <strong class="selflink">computer science</strong></div>
</th>
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<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACM_Computing_Classification_System" title="ACM Computing Classification System">ACM Computing classification</a>.</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Hardware</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">Peripheral</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very-large-scale_integration" title="Very-large-scale integration">Very-large-scale integration</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_computing" title="Green computing">Energy consumption</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Computer systems<br />
organization</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">Real-time computing</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependability" title="Dependability">Dependability</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Networks</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_architecture" title="Network architecture">Network architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_protocol" title="Network protocol" class="mw-redirect">Network protocol</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">Network components</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_scheduler" title="Network scheduler">Network scheduler</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_performance" title="Network performance">Network performance evaluation</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_service" title="Network service">Network service</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Software organization</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middleware" title="Middleware">Middleware</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">Virtual machine</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Software notations</a><br />
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_tool" title="Programming tool">tools</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler_construction" title="Compiler construction">Compiler</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_framework" title="Software framework">Software framework</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">Integrated development environment</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">Software library</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_repository" title="Software repository">Software repository</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requirements_analysis" title="Requirements analysis">Requirements analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_construction" title="Software construction">Software construction</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_team" title="Programming team">Programming team</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source model</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">Theory of computation</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_of_computation" title="Model of computation">Model of computation</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">Formal language</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">Automata theory</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm_design" title="Algorithm design">Algorithm design</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms" title="Analysis of algorithms">Analysis of algorithms</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_algorithm" title="Randomized algorithm">Randomized algorithm</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">Computational geometry</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Mathematics<br />
of computing</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_mathematics" title="Discrete mathematics">Discrete mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_software" title="Mathematical software">Mathematical software</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">Mathematical analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">Numerical analysis</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">Information<br />
systems</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_management_system" title="Database management system" class="mw-redirect">Database management system</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Information storage systems</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_information_system" title="Enterprise information system">Enterprise information system</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_software" title="Social software">Social information systems</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">Decision support system</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_control" title="Process control">Process control system</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia_database" title="Multimedia database">Multimedia information system</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">Computing platform</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_marketing" title="Digital marketing">Digital marketing</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">Information retrieval</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Security</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_service_(telecommunication)" title="Security service (telecommunication)">Security services</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">Intrusion detection system</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security_compromised_by_hardware_failure" title="Computer security compromised by hardware failure">Hardware security</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer<br />
interaction</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaction_design" title="Interaction design">Interaction design</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_computing" title="Social computing">Social computing</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visualization_(computer_graphics)" title="Visualization (computer graphics)">Visualization</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_accessibility" title="Computer accessibility">Accessibility</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">Concurrency</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">Parallel computing</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multithreading_(computer_architecture)" title="Multithreading (computer architecture)">Multithreading</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial<br />
intelligence</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_planning_and_scheduling" title="Automated planning and scheduling">Automated planning and scheduling</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Search methodology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control method</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_artificial_intelligence" title="Distributed artificial intelligence">Distributed artificial intelligence</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervised_learning" title="Supervised learning">Supervised learning</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsupervised_learning" title="Unsupervised learning">Unsupervised learning</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement_learning" title="Reinforcement learning">Reinforcement learning</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-task_learning" title="Multi-task learning">Multi-task learning</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_machine_learning_concepts" title="List of machine learning concepts">Machine learning algorithms</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation (statistics)">Cross-validation</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Graphics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Animation</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendering_(computer_graphics)" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">Rendering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photo_manipulation" title="Photo manipulation">Image manipulation</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_reality" title="Mixed reality">Mixed reality</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">Image compression</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_modeling" title="Solid modeling">Solid modeling</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Applied<br />
computing</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-commerce" title="E-commerce">E-commerce</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_software" title="Enterprise software">Enterprise software</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_mathematics" title="Computational mathematics">Computational mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational physics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_social_science" title="Computational social science">Computational social science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_engineering" title="Computational engineering">Computational engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">Computational healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_publishing" title="Electronic publishing">Electronic publishing</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_voting" title="Electronic voting">Electronic voting</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">Video game</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_processor" title="Word processor">Word processing</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_management_system" title="Document management system">Document management</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><b><span class="metadata"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/16px-Internet_map_1024.jpg" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/24px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/32px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Computer_science" title="Portal:Computer science">Computer science portal</a></b></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Technology" title="Template:Technology"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Technology" title="Template talk:Technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Technology&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
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</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_technology" title="Outline of technology">Outline of technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science" title="Outline of applied science">Outline of applied science</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Fields</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">Aquaculture</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisheries_science" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Food engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Food microbiology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_technology" title="Food technology">Food technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_use_restriction_technology" title="Genetic use restriction technology">GURT</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICT_in_agriculture" title="ICT in agriculture">ICT</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrition" title="Nutrition">Nutrition</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_technology" title="Biomedical technology">Biomedical</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomechatronics" title="Biomechatronics">Biomechatronics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheminformatics" title="Cheminformatics">Cheminformatics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_science" title="Healthcare science" class="mw-redirect">Healthcare science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_research" title="Medical research">Medical research</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_technology" title="Medical technology" class="mw-redirect">Medical technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurotechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproductive_technology" title="Reproductive technology">Reproductive technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">Tissue engineering</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Buildings</a> and<br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">Acoustical engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_engineering" title="Construction engineering">Construction engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_technology" title="Domestic technology">Domestic technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facade_engineering" title="Facade engineering">Facade engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_protection_engineering" title="Fire protection engineering">Fire protection engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitary_engineering" title="Sanitary engineering">Sanitary engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_software" title="Educational software">Educational software</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_technologies_in_education" title="Digital technologies in education" class="mw-redirect">Digital technologies in education</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_and_communication_technologies_in_education" title="Information and communication technologies in education" class="mw-redirect">ICT in education</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_technology_on_the_educational_system" title="Impact of technology on the educational system" class="mw-redirect">Impact</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia_learning" title="Multimedia learning" class="mw-redirect">Multimedia learning</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_campus" title="Virtual campus">Virtual campus</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_education" title="Virtual education" class="mw-redirect">Virtual education</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_technology" title="Energy technology">Energy</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_energy_technology" title="Soft energy technology">Soft energy technology</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">Environmental</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_technology" title="Clean technology">Clean technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_coal_technology" title="Clean coal technology">Clean coal technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design" title="Ecological design">Ecological design</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotechnology" title="Ecotechnology">Ecotechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering_science" title="Environmental engineering science">Environmental engineering science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_building" title="Green building">Green building</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_nanotechnology" title="Green nanotechnology">Green nanotechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_engineering" title="Landscape engineering">Landscape engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable design</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_engineering" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainable engineering</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_technology" title="Industrial technology">Industrial</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">Automation</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_informatics" title="Business informatics">Business informatics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Engineering management</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_engineering" title="Enterprise engineering">Enterprise engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_finance" title="Computational finance">Financial engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_biotechnology" title="Industrial biotechnology" class="mw-redirect">Industrial biotechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Productivity_improving_technologies_(historical)" title="Productivity improving technologies (historical)" class="mw-redirect">Productivity improving technologies</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">Research and development</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_and_communications_technology" title="Information and communications technology">IT and<br />
communications</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">Broadcast engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Computer science</strong></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_technology" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">Information technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_technology" title="Music technology" class="mw-redirect">Music technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology_engineering" title="Ontology engineering">Ontology engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RF_engineering" title="RF engineering" class="mw-redirect">RF engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_technology" title="Visual technology">Visual technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_engineering" title="Web engineering">Web engineering</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Military</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_engineering_maintenance" title="Army engineering maintenance">Army engineering maintenance</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_warfare" title="Electronic warfare">Electronic warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">Military communications</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth_technology" title="Stealth technology">Stealth technology</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">Transport</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_engineering" title="Automotive engineering">Automotive engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">Naval architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_technology" title="Space technology" class="mw-redirect">Space technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_engineering_(transportation)" title="Traffic engineering (transportation)">Traffic engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_engineering" title="Transport engineering" class="mw-redirect">Transport engineering</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Others</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied science</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryogenics" title="Cryogenics">Cryogenics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electro-optics" title="Electro-optics">Electro-optics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">Electronics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_geology" title="Engineering geology">Engineering geology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering physics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulics" title="Hydraulics">Hydraulics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfabrication" title="Microfabrication">Microfabrication</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoengineering" title="Nanoengineering">Nanoengineering</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_branches" title="List of engineering branches">list</a>)</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_engineering" title="Audio engineering" class="mw-redirect">Audio</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_engineering" title="Biochemical engineering">Biochemical</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">Polymer</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_technology" title="Entertainment technology">Entertainment</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">Hydraulic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">Mechatronics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_engineering" title="Optical engineering">Optical</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_engineering" title="Protein engineering">Protein</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_technology" title="Quantum technology">Quantum</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">Robotics</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animatronics" title="Animatronics">Animatronics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Systems</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Components</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Invention</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">Machine</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skill" title="Skill">Skill</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craft" title="Craft">Craft</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">Tool</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadget" title="Gadget">Gadget</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Scales</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femtotechnology" title="Femtotechnology">Femtotechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picotechnology" title="Picotechnology">Picotechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtechnology" title="Microtechnology">Microtechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro-engineering" title="Macro-engineering">Macro-engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megascale_engineering" title="Megascale engineering">Megascale engineering</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_technology" title="Ancient technology">Ancient technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Age" title="Atomic Age">Atomic Age</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Age" title="Jet Age">Jet Age</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Age" title="Space Age">Space Age</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Revolution" title="Digital Revolution">Digital Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">Theories</a> and<br />
concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">Appropriate technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collingridge_dilemma" title="Collingridge dilemma">Collingridge dilemma</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique_of_technology" title="Critique of technology">Critique of technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">Disruptive innovation</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-use_technology" title="Dual-use technology">Dual-use technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephemeralization" title="Ephemeralization">Ephemeralization</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_tech" title="High tech">High tech</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hype_cycle" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-technology" title="Low-technology" class="mw-redirect">Low-technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mature_technology" title="Mature technology">Mature technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy_of_Technology" title="Strategy of Technology">Strategy of Technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technicism" title="Technicism">Technicism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno-progressivism" title="Techno-progressivism">Techno-progressivism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocapitalism" title="Technocapitalism">Technocapitalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocentrism" title="Technocentrism">Technocentrism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocriticism" title="Technocriticism">Technocriticism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoculture" title="Technoculture">Technoculture</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoetic" title="Technoetic">Technoetic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technogaianism" title="Technogaianism">Technogaianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_alliance" title="Technological alliance">Technological alliance</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_apartheid" title="Technological apartheid">Technological apartheid</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">Technological change</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">Technological convergence</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">Technological determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_escalation" title="Technological escalation">Technological escalation</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_evolution" title="Technological evolution">Technological evolution</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_fix" title="Technological fix">Technological fix</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">Technological innovation system</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_momentum" title="Technological momentum">Technological momentum</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_nationalism" title="Technological nationalism">Technological nationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_paradigm" title="Technological paradigm">Technological paradigm</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_rationality" title="Technological rationality">Technological rationality</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_revival" title="Technological revival">Technological revival</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">Technological revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_self-efficacy" title="Technological self-efficacy">Technological self-efficacy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singularitarianism" title="Singularitarianism">Singularitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_somnambulism" title="Technological somnambulism">Technological somnambulism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">Technological transitions</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_utopianism" title="Technological utopianism">Technological utopianism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_lifecycle" title="Technology lifecycle" class="mw-redirect">Technology lifecycle</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_acceptance_model" title="Technology acceptance model">Technology acceptance model</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_adoption_lifecycle" title="Technology adoption lifecycle" class="mw-redirect">Technology adoption lifecycle</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technomancy" title="Technomancy">Technomancy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technopaganism" title="Technopaganism">Technopaganism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technorealism" title="Technorealism">Technorealism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoromanticism" title="Technoromanticism">Technoromanticism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li>
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<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_emerging_technologies" title="List of emerging technologies">List</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictional_technology" title="Fictional technology">Fictional technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:High-technology_business_districts" title="Category:High-technology business districts">High-technology business districts</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kardashev_scale" title="Kardashev scale">Kardashev scale</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_technologies" title="List of technologies">List of technologies</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Ethics of technology</a> / <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoethics" title="Technoethics">Technoethics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology_and_society" title="Science, technology and society">Science, technology and society</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">Technology dynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_by_country" title="Category:Science and technology by country">Science and technology by country</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_fields" title="STEM fields" class="mw-redirect">STEM fields</a>
<ul>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">women</a></li>
</ul>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_evangelist" title="Technology evangelist">Technology evangelist</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_fusion" title="Technology fusion">Technology fusion</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_governance" title="Technology governance">Technology governance</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_integration" title="Technology integration">Technology integration</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_journalism" title="Technology journalism">Technology journalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_management" title="Technology management">Technology management</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_museum" title="Technology museum">Technology museum</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_policy" title="Technology policy">Technology policy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_shock" title="Technology shock">Technology shock</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_strategy" title="Technology strategy">Technology strategy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">Technology and society</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">Technology transfer</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technophilia" title="Technophilia">Technophilia</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technophobia" title="Technophobia">Technophobia</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoself" title="Technoself">Technoself</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technosexual" title="Technosexual">Technosexual</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technosignature" title="Technosignature">Technosignature</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technostress" title="Technostress">Technostress</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terotechnology" title="Terotechnology">Terotechnology</a></li>
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			<h3 id='p-interaction-label'>Interaction</h3>

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			<h3 id='p-tb-label'>Tools</h3>

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						<li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Computer_science" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Computer_science" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;oldid=702165041" title="Permanent link to this revision of the page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&amp;action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-wikibase"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198" title="Link to connected data repository item [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li><li id="t-cite"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&amp;page=Computer_science&amp;id=702165041" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li>					</ul>
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						<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekenaarwetenskap" title="Rekenaarwetenskap – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatik" title="Informatik – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8A%AE%E1%88%9D%E1%8D%92%E1%8B%8D%E1%89%B0%E1%88%AD%E1%8D%A1%E1%8C%A5%E1%8A%93%E1%89%B5" title="የኮምፒውተር፡ጥናት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A8" title="علم الحاسوب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatica" title="Informatica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatic%C4%83" title="Informatică – Aromanian" lang="roa-rup" hreflang="roa-rup">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="কম্পিউটাৰ বিজ্ঞান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inform%C3%A1tica" title="Informática – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nformatika" title="İnformatika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="কম্পিউটার বিজ্ঞান – Bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C4%81n-n%C3%A1u_kho-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Tiān-náu kho-ha̍k – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Інфарматыка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="https://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Інфарматыка – беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="कंप्यूटर बिज्ञान – भोजपुरी" lang="bh" hreflang="bh">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Информатика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatik" title="Informatik – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunarstvo" title="Računarstvo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urzhiataerezh" title="Urzhiataerezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A8ncies_de_la_computaci%C3%B3" title="Ciències de la computació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matematick%C3%A1_informatika" title="Matematická informatika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatica" title="Informatica – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyfrifiadureg" title="Cyfrifiadureg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datalogi" title="Datalogi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatik" title="Informatik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informaatika" title="Informaatika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Πληροφορική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inform%C3%A0tica" title="Informàtica – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="eml" hreflang="eml">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencias_de_la_computaci%C3%B3n" title="Ciencias de la computación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informadiko" title="Informadiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhorm%C3%A1tica" title="Enhormática – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatika" title="Informatika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="علوم رایانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teldufr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Teldufrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatique" title="Informatique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ynformatika" title="Ynformatika – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatiche" title="Informatiche – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADomheola%C3%ADocht" title="Ríomheolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheanse_co-earrooagh" title="Sheanse co-earrooagh – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencias_da_computaci%C3%B3n" title="Ciencias da computación – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thien-n%C3%B3_Kh%C3%B4-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Thien-nó Khô-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak">客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BB%B4%ED%93%A8%ED%84%B0_%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99" title="컴퓨터 과학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%B6%D6%86%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Ինֆորմատիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="कम्प्यूटर विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunarstvo" title="Računarstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatiko" title="Informatiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_komputer" title="Ilmu komputer – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatica" title="Informatica – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatica" title="Informatica – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%91%90%E1%93%B4%E1%90%85%E1%92%AA%E1%96%83%E1%91%A6%E1%91%95%E1%90%85%E1%91%8E%E1%94%BE%E1%94%AA%E1%91%8E%E1%93%82%E1%92%83_%E1%90%8A%E1%90%85%E1%93%9A%E1%91%A6%E1%91%8E%E1%94%A9%E1%91%A6/tusaumaqattautijjutinik_aulattijiit" title="ᑐᓴᐅᒪᖃᑦᑕᐅᑎᔾᔪᑎᓂᒃ ᐊᐅᓚᑦᑎᔩᑦ/tusaumaqattautijjutinik aulattijiit – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu">ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B6lvunarfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Tölvunarfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatica" title="Informatica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%91" title="מדעי המחשב – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qarasaasialerinermik_ilisimatusarneq" title="Qarasaasialerinermik ilisimatusarneq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%A3%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ಗಣಕ ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ინფორმატიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inf%C3%B2rmatika" title="Infòrmatika – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Информатика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enf%C3%B2matik" title="Enfòmatik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informat%C3%AEk" title="Informatîk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatika" title="Informatika – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ltg"><a href="https://ltg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datorzineiba" title="Datorzineiba – Latgalian" lang="ltg" hreflang="ltg">Latgaļu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatica" title="Informatica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datorzin%C4%81tne" title="Datorzinātne – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatik" title="Informatik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatika" title="Informatika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatica" title="Informatica – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/samske" title="samske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo">Lojban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%A1m%C3%ADt%C3%A1studom%C3%A1ny" title="Számítástudomány – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Информатика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kajimirindra" title="Kajimirindra – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടർ ശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sains_komputer" title="Sains komputer – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A9ncia_de_la_cumputa%C3%A7on" title="Ciéncia de la cumputaçon – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%85_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Компьютерийн шинжлэх ухаан – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatica" title="Informatica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infermatika" title="Infermatika – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="कम्प्युटर विज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="कम्प्युटर विज्ञान – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%88%E7%AE%97%E6%A9%9F%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="計算機科学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nfurmateca" title="Nfurmateca – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informaatik" title="Informaatik – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatikk" title="Informatikk – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatikk" title="Informatikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputal_sientie" title="Komputal sientie – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatica" title="Informatica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Информатике – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%AE%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AA%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%9F%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%9F%E0%AC%B0_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="କମ୍ପ୍ୟୁଟର ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Oriya" lang="or" hreflang="or">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatika" title="Informatika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0_(%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0)_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="सुशांख्य यन्त्र (कम्प्युटर) विज्ञान – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi">पालि</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%BC%D8%B1%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="کمپیوټرپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatike" title="Informatike – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anform%C3%A0tica" title="Anformàtica – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatyka" title="Informatyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%AAncia_da_computa%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Ciência da computação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatika" title="Informatika – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatic%C4%83" title="Informatică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Інформатіка – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Информатика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="सङ्गणकविज्ञानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inform%C3%A0tica" title="Informàtica – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informoatik" title="Informoatik – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shkenca_kompjuterike" title="Shkenca kompjuterike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nfurm%C3%A0tica" title="Nfurmàtica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="පරිගණක විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda_o_po%C4%8D%C3%ADta%C4%8Doch" title="Veda o počítačoch – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunalni%C5%A1tvo" title="Računalništvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%B1" title="زانستی کۆمپیوتەر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Информатика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunarstvo" title="Računarstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tietojenk%C3%A4sittelytiede" title="Tietojenkäsittelytiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datavetenskap" title="Datavetenskap – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agham_pangkompyuter" title="Agham pangkompyuter – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="கணினியியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatyka" title="Informatyka – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Информатика – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="కంప్యూటరు శాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="วิทยาการคอมพิวเตอร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%AE%E1%88%9D%E1%8D%92%E1%8B%A9%E1%89%B0%E1%88%AD_%E1%88%B3%E1%8B%AD%E1%8A%95%E1%88%B5" title="ኮምፒዩተር ሳይንስ – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti">ትግርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Информатика – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilgisayar_bilimi" title="Bilgisayar bilimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatika" title="Informatika – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Інформатика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%B1_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="کمپیوٹر سائنس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D9%85%DB%88%DA%BE%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%BA%DB%8C" title="بیلگیسايار مۈھەندیسلیغی – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Science" title="Computer Science – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoa_h%E1%BB%8Dc_m%C3%A1y_t%C3%ADnh" title="Khoa học máy tính – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informaatiga" title="Informaatiga – Võro" lang="fiu-vro" hreflang="fiu-vro">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inf%C3%B4rmatike" title="Infôrmatike – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siyensya_han_komputasyon" title="Siyensya han komputasyon – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xam-xamu_nosukaay" title="Xam-xamu nosukaay – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="计算机科学 – Wu Chinese" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cfit%C3%B3nil%C3%A9t%C3%AD" title="Ìfitónilétí – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="電腦科學 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue">粵語</a></li><li 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