Unit 1.Parts and Contents of the Body
IN THIS UNIT
- Body parts
- Cavities
- Organs
- Regions
- The skeleton
- Teaching/studying gross anatomy
STARTING OUT
Work in pairs.
Write a list of parts of the body on a piece of paper. Start at the head and finish at the toes. When you are ready swap papers with another pair of students. Where in the body can you find these parts?
When you have finished, identify the following parts of the body in the diagram by writing appropriate numbers in brackets.
abdomen/belly/tummy/stomach (......)
ankle (12)
arm (......)
armpit (......)
back (......)
big toe (......)
buttock (......)
calf (pl. calves) (......)
cheek (......)
chest (......)
chin (......)
cubital fossa (......)
elbow (......)
eyebrow (......)
eyelid (......)
finger (......)
foot (pl. feet) (......)
forearm (......)
forehead (......)
hand (......)
head (......)
heel (......)
hip (......)
knee (......)
leg (......)
lower leg (......)
lip (......)
little finger (......)
little toe (......)
mouth (......)
navel (......)
neck (......)
nose (......)
nostril (......)
palm (......)
popliteal fossa (......)
shin (......)
shoulder (......)
small of the back (......)
thigh (......)
thumb (......)
toe (......)
waist (......)
wrist (......)
Note:
- belly = abdomen (informal)
- tummy = a child's word for stomach or abdomen.
- stomach = (1) the body organ where the food is digested; (2) the abdomen
- leg = the lower limb, including the foot; part of the lower limb above the foot
- lower leg = part of the lower limb, above the foot and below the knee
- shin = the bony front part of the leg, between the knee and ankle
- shin bone = the tibia
Reading
Read the text and answer the questions.
The Human Body
The human body consists of the head and neck, the trunk (torso) and four limbs (extremities).
The cranial cavity in the head is filled by the brain. The chest (thorax) lies between the neck and the diaphragm, a sheet of muscle under the ribs. The ribs form a protective cage for the contents of the chest. The walls of the chest are made up of the ribs, the costal cartilages, the intercostal muscles and the transverse processes of the thoracic vertebrae. The mediastinum is the central cavity. It is situated between the lungs, in the area between the breastbone (sternum) in front and the spine (vertebral column) behind, and the diaphragm below. It completely separates one side of the thoracic cavity from the other. The heart and major blood vessels leading in and out of it, the trachea, the oesophagus, the thymus gland, lymph nodes and vessels, and the vagus and phrenic nerves are found within the mediastinum. The abdomen lies between the chest and the pelvis. The diaphragm which separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity forms the upper boundary of the abdominal cavity. There is no partition dividing the abdominopelvic cavity, but it is separated into the upper abdominal cavity and the lower pelvic cavity. The abdomen is protected in the back and on the sides by the ribs, the spine and the hips and surrounded by layers of muscle and fat. The abdominal wall is lined by the peritoneum, a serous membrane which encloses, lubricates and supports the organs contained in the cavity. The contents of the abdominal cavity are organs of the digestive and urinary systems. The liver with the gall bladder lies below the diaphragm and to the right. The stomach, the pancreas and the spleen lie to the left. The small and large intestines are located below the stomach. The kidneys are situated in the back of the abdominal cavity on either side of the vertebral column. The right kidney is found under the liver and the left kidney is positioned slightly higher, under the spleen. Portions of the small and large intestines, the bladder, the rectum and the internal reproductive organs are within the pelvis.
1. How many body cavities are described above?
2. Where is each of them situated?
3. How is the thoracic cavity separated into two parts?
4. What are the boundaries of the mediastinum?
5. What organs lie within the mediastinum?
6. What are the upper and lower boundaries of the abdominal cavity?
7. What is the peritoneum?
8. Which organ systems are found in the abdominal cavity?
9. Do both kidneys lie at the same level?
10. Where is the large intestine found?
11. Which of the organs found in the thoracic and abdominal cavities can be successfully transplanted? Any other organs?
Vocabulary
1 Complete these descriptions of two sets of simple exercises by translating the Polish terms for body parts into English.
a. How to exercise at work or between classes
1. Straighten your plecy against your chair, stretch your szyja and then turn your głowa five times clockwise and five times anticlockwise.
2. Bend your łokcie and rotate your barki, five times forward, then five times back.
3. Holding your desk with one dłoń, stand on one noga and bend the other up behind you by your kostka. Pull and hold for 15 seconds. Stretch each noga five times.
4. Stand with your plecy against the wall, then slide down until your uda are horizontal. Hold for 15 seconds. Repeat five times.
5. Holding on to your desk, squat down on your pięty, then straighten up and bend backwards. Repeat five times.
6. Bend back against your chair and expand your klatka piersiowa, with your ręce hanging down. Then relax forward until your głowa is between your kolana. Repeat ten times.
b. How to improve your posture
1. Lift your głowa up, stretching your szyja until your barki drop back.
2. Warm up the mięśnie by gently raising each bark towards the uszy. Then use circular motions to shrug the barki forwards and backwards.
3. Take several long, deep breaths. As you inhale allow your przepona and ribcage to expand. As you exhale squeeze your brzuszek in by pulling your pępek towards the spine.
4. When you walk try to bend only one noga at a time. To strengthen the mięśnie required for this, sit on the floor with your nogi in front of you and walk forwards on your pośladki, keeping the nogi straight.
2 Where do they sit in the body? Make lists of anatomical parts of the body in their locations.
Location
Part(s) of the body
Head
....................................
Neck
....................................
Trunk (torso)
....................................
Upper limb (extremity)
....................................
Lower limb (extremitity)
....................................
3 Complete the following sentences about parts of the human body.
1. The neck connects the ....... to the ....... .
2. The term arm may refer to the section of the ....... limb between the ....... and the shoulder, but it is usually used to describe the whole limb.
3. The elbow is the joint at which the arm bends, and the arm and the ....... meet.
4. A ....... is any of the five digits of the foot.
5. The ....... is the short first digit of the hand, but not technically a ....... .
6. The knee is the joint connecting the ....... to the ....... leg.
7. The heel is the part of the foot behind the ....... joint.
8. The ....... is the front of the leg below the knee.
9. The word ....... refers to the narrowing of the trunk of the body.
10. The ....... is a rounded depression in the centre of the belly.
4 Using sentences in exercise 3 as examples, make your own descriptions of some other anatomical parts of the body.
5 Identify the organs described below by choosing appropriate terms from the box. When you have finished, tell which of these organs are tubular or hollow (have a lumen) and which are compact or solid (have no lumen).
bladder - bronchus (pl. bronchi) - gallbladder - heart - intestine - kidneys - larynx - liver - lungs - oesophagus - pharynx - spleen - stomach - trachea - ureter - urethra
1. The pharynx is the passageway that connects the nose and mouth with the trachea and the oesophagus.
2. .............................. is the organ responsible for voice production.
3. .............................. is the airway that connects the larynx with the bronchi.
4. .............................. is an airway from the trachea into each lung.
5. .............................. are the main organ of respiration.
6. .............................. is an organ that filters old or damaged red blood cells out of the bloodstream and produces some infection-fighting agents.
7. .............................. is one of two organs, in which blood is filtered and waste products and excess fluid are excreted as urine.
8. .............................. is the sac that holds urine produced in the kidneys.
9. .............................. is the fibromuscular tube which conveys the urine from the kidney to the bladder.
10. .............................. is the narrow tube that transports urine from the bladder to be excreted by the body.
11. .............................. is the largest organ in the body.
12. .............................. holds and concentrates bile.
13. .............................. is the muscular tube that passes from the throat to the stomach.
14. .............................. is the organ which receives swallowed food.
15. .............................. is where the absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream takes place.
16. .............................. is the organ that pumps blood throughout the body.
6 Paraphrase the definitions from exercise 1 using a verb of naming as in the sentences below.
Example: The passageway that connects the nose and mouth with the trachea and the oesophagus is called the pharynx.
or
The passageway that connects the nose and mouth with the trachea and the oesophagus is known as the pharynx.
or
The passageway that connects the nose and mouth with the trachea and the oesophagus is referred to as the pharynx.
7 What are these organs commonly called? Complete the table choosing the appropriate term from the box. Add a verb of naming and read the sentences out.
voice box - throat - gullet - windpipe - bowel (gut) - limb - chest - navel - waterworks - finger or toe bone - shoulder blade
Technical term of Latin origin
("doctor's language")
Commonly called
("patient's language")
Extremity
Intestine
bowel (gut*)
Larynx
Oesophagus
Phalanx
Scapula
Thorax
Trachea
Umbilicus
Urinary tract
* gut may also refer to the digestive tract
Note:
- In anatomical descriptions, the definite article is used with body parts/organs/structures.
8 Reconstruct the technical equivalents of the common terms for body parts and organs, by filling in the missing letters in the column on the right.
1. backbone _ _ r _ _ _ _ _ l c _ _ _ _ n
2. breastbone _ _ _ _ _ u _
3. collarbone _ _ a _ _ _ _ e
4. skull _ _ _ _ _ u _
5. upper jaw _ _ _ _ ll _
6. lower jaw m _ _ _ _ b _ e
7. knee cap _ _ t _ _ _ a
8. belly a _ _ o _ _ _
9. tummy _ _ d _ _ _ _
10. belly button u _ _ _ _ _ _ _ s
11. back passage _ n _ _
12. heart muscle _ _ _ _ a _ _ i _ m
9 Abdomens
All of these informal expressions refer to large abdomens (excess abdominal fat). Match them to the definitions.
1.
a beer belly (a beer gut)
a.
a large rounded stomach
2.
a potbelly
b.
a large ring of fat around a person's waist
3.
a spare tyre
c.
fat around the waist and buttocks that appears in many people during middle age
4.
middle-age spread
d.
a fat stomach caused by drinking too much beer
10 What can body parts/organs do
These verbs can be used to describe the reactions, either physical or emotional, of the body. Match the body part/organ with the right verb and complete the sentences.
BODY PART/ORGAN
VERB
1.
head
a.
kill
2.
eyes
b.
swim
3.
heart
c.
water
4.
blood
d.
rumble
5.
feet
e.
race
6.
stomach
f.
fall
7.
face
g.
boil
1. I felt awful yesterday. My head was ......................... and I couldn't concentrate on my work. [I felt dizzy]
2. Our eyes ......................... when we cut up onions. [ fill with tears]
3. The way he talks about other people makes my blood ......................... . [feel very angry]
4. Working on the ward for 12 hours. My feet are ......................... me! [hurting very much]
5. When are we going to have something to eat? My stomach's ......................... . [borborygmus]
6. His face ......................... when I told him the diagnosis. [looked sad]
7. My heart is ......................... when I drink anything stronger than beer. [palpitations]
11 Give the nouns (all are names of parts/organs of the body) to which these adjectives are related.
1. aortic
2. arterial
3. bony
4. bronchial
5. cardiac heart
6. carotid
7. cartilaginous
8. cerebral
9. gastric
10. hepatic
11. intestinal
12. laryngeal
13. ocular
14. oesophageal
15. pulmonary
16. renal
17. splenic
18. thoracic
19. tracheal
20. venous
12 Look at the diagram and complete the lists below.
1. The main structures in the thorax (chest) are:
a.
b.
c.
d. aorta
e.
2. The abdominal cavity contains the following organs:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
3. Within the pelvis are:
a.
b.
c. in the female, the uterus, fallopian tubes and ovaries
13 What organ systems do these descriptions refer to? Read out complete definitions.
Cardiovascular 1
Digestive ................................
Endocrine ................................
Integumentary ................................
Lymphatic ................................
Muscular ................................
Nervous ................................
Reproductive ................................
Respiratory ................................
Skeletal ................................
Urinary ................................
1. Consists of the heart, blood and blood vessels.
2. Comprises four types of structure: lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lymphatic nodes and lymphatic ducts.
3. Its organs are the nose, the pharynx, the larynx, the trachea, the bronchi, the brochioles and the lungs.
4. Consists of the digestive tract and the accessory organs (the teeth, the salivary glands, the liver and bile ducts, and the pancreas).
5. Consists of the following components: the kidneys, the ureters, the bladder and the urethra.
6. The covering of the body, or skin, including its various layers and their appendages (the epidermis, dermis, subcutaneous tissue, sweat glands, hair, nails, sebaceous glands).
7. The ovaries and testes are its components.
8. Produces hormones, which control a variety of bodily functions.
9. It comprises the central and peripheral nervous systems.
10. All the muscles of the body considered collectively.
11. The bones and cartilages of the body.
14 Arrange the terms for body parts/organs in the body under the following headings and/or identify them in the diagrams.
adrenals - anus - arteries - bladder - blood - brain - bronchus (pl. bronchi) - bronchioles - colon - gallbladder - heart - kidneys - larynx - liver - left/right lung - mouth - nasopharynx - nose - oesophagus - oropharynx - ovaries - pancreas - parathyroids - peripheral nerves - pituitary - salivary glands - small intestine - spinal cord - stomach - testes - thyroid - tongue - trachea - rectum - ureters - urethra - veins - vermiform appendix
Cardiovascular system
- ......................
- ......................
Respiration
- ......................
- ......................
- ......................
- ......................
Digestion
- ......................
- ......................
- ......................
- ......................
- ......................
- ......................
Urinary system
- ......................
- ......................
Endocrine glands
- ......................
- ......................
- ......................
- ......................
- ......................
- (females) (males)
Nervous system
- ...................... -
- ...................... -
- ...................... -
15 Look at the commonly used plural endings of medical terms of Greek and Latin origin.
vertebra vertebrae
foramen foramina
testis testes
iris irides
phalanx phalanges
spermatozoon spermatozoa
ovum ova
bronchus bronchi
thorax thoraces
Now, give the plural form of the following nouns.
alveolus
apex
atrium
bacterium
canaliculus
cervix
embolus
epiphysis
gingiva
hallux
hilum
phenomenon
pleura
scapula
septum
thrombus
vena cava
viscus
16 Study the diagram and answer the questions.
The bones, muscles and joints form a system known as the musculoskeletal system. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebrae, rib cage and breastbone and the appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the limbs and the bones that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.
1. Where does the brain lie?
2. What is the movable lower jaw bone called?
3. How many vertebrae are there in the vertebral column (spine)?
4. Which region do the cervical vertebrae occupy?
5. Which vertebrae are fused?
6. What do you call the bone articulating with the sternum and scapula?
7. How many bones are there in the upper arm?
8. How many bones are there in the forearm?
9. Which is shorter, the radius or the ulna?
10. What are the metatarsals?
11. What bones are called phalanges?
12. What are the two names of the bone situated at the front of the knee?
Word Formation
Study the following roots (bases of words) of Latin origin and then complete the definitions.
Term
Body part/organ
abdomin(o)
abdomen
arthr(o)
joint
brachi(o)
arm
cardi(o)
heart, cardiac orifice or portion of the stomach
chol(e)
gall, bile
cleido(o)
clavicle
coron(o)
heart
cost(o)
rib
crani(o)
skull
encephal(o)
brain
enter(o)
(small) intestine(s)
gastr(o)
stomach
hepat(o)
liver
phleb(o)
vein
stomat(o)
mouth
vas(o)
vessel
ven(o)
vein
1. Abdominal pain is pain felt in the abdomen.
2. Arthropathy is any ...................... disease.
3. Brachialgia is pain in the ...................... .
4. Cardiology is the study of the ...................... and its functions.
5. Cholelith is another word for a ...................... stone.
6. Cleidocostal refers to the ...................... and the ...................... .
7. Craniotomy is an operation on the ...................... .
8. Encephalitis is inflammation of the ...................... .
9. Enteropathy is any disease of the ...................... .
10. A gastrologist is a specialist in diseases of the ...................... .
11. Hepatitis is inflammation of the ...................... .
12. Phlebology is the study of the ...................... and their diseases.
13. Stomatalgia is pain in the ...................... .
14. Vasospasm is spasm of the blood ...................... .
15. ...................... blood is the deoxygenated blood found in the systemic circulation.
More reading
1 Read the text and answer the questions.
Anatomy
Before you learn how to examine and treat patients, it is vital to learn anatomy. Anatomy can be divided into microscopic anatomy and macroscopic anatomy. Microscopic anatomy considers structures that cannot be seen without magnification. Cytology analyses the internal structure of individual cells while histology examines tissues. Gross anatomy is the study of large parts of the body that can be seen with the naked eye. Surface anatomy refers to the study of general form and superficial markings. Regional anatomy considers all the superficial and internal features in a specific region of the body, such as the head, neck or trunk. Systemic anatomy considers the structure of major organ systems, which are groups of organs that function together (for example, the heart, blood and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system). Radiological anatomy studies the anatomy of organs and tissues using radiological techniques. Morbid (pathological) anatomy deals with the anatomy of diseased tissues. In living anatomy, the surface markings of internal organs such as the liver or spleen may be studied using living models.
Traditionally, the teaching of anatomy has been by dissection and the dissecting room is an important first step for first-year medical students. Students have a few hours of cadaveric dissection every week and they get hands-on experience of the human body and discuss anatomy with a tutor. The first time they saw the cadaver is a moment they will remember forever. Many students think dissection is one of the most interesting classes. In many medical schools, students do prosections rather than full-body dissections. They learn anatomy on prosected cadaveric specimens, that is material that has been carefully dissected to show a particular structure. Also, skeletons and skeletal material, anatomical models and posters or interactive multimedia are utilized.
1. What are the two names for the anatomical specialty which examines parts of the body seen with the unaided eye?
2. Which anatomical specialty deals with regions of the body?
3. What is another term for a dead body?
4. How is gross anatomy taught?
5. What is living anatomy?
2 Read the table explaining the terms for the regions of the body and identify these regions in the diagrams by putting their assigned numbers in the circles.
1
Abdominal
Below the diaphragm; between the thorax and the pelvis
2
Antebrachial
Between the elbow and the wrist; forearm; cubital region
3
Antecubital
Space in front of the elbow
4
Axillary
Armpit area
5
Brachial
Arm; proximal portion of the upper limb
6
Buccal
Region of the cheek
7
Carpal
Wrist
8
Coeliac
Abdomen
9
Cephalic
Head
10
Costal
Ribs
11
Cranial
Skull
12
Crural
Portion of the lower extremity between the knee and the foot
13
Femoral
Thigh; the part of the lower extremity between the hip and the knee
14
Frontal
Forehead
15
Gluteal
Buttock region
16
Inguinal
Depressed region between the abdomen and the thigh; groin
17
Leg
Portion of the lower extremity between the knee and the foot; the crural region
18
Lumbar
Region of the lower back and side between the lowest rib and the pelvis
19
Mammary
Breast
20
Occipital
Lower portion of the back of head
21
Ophthalmic
Eyes
22
Oral
Mouth
23
Otic
Ears
24
Palmar
Palm of the hand
25
Pectoral
Chest region
26
Pedal
Foot
27
Pelvic
Inferior region of the abdominopelvic cavity
28
Perineal
Region between the anus and pubic symphysis; includes the region of the external reproductive organs
29
Plantar
Sole of the foot
30
Popliteal
Area behind the knee
31
Sacral
Posterior region between the hipbones
32
Sternal
Anterior midline of the thorax
33
Tarsal
Ankle and instep of the foot
34
Thoracic
Chest; part of the trunk inferior to the neck and superior to the diaphragm
35
Umbilical
Navel; middle region of the abdomen
36
Vertebral
The spinal column; backbone
Translation
1 Translate the following into English.
1. krew tętnicza ...................... .
2. drzewo oskrzelowe ...................... .
3. mięsień sercowy ...................... .
4. tętnica mózgowa ...................... .
5. tętnica szyjna ...................... .
6. czynność żołądka ...................... .
7. żyła wątrobowa ...................... .
8. nerw krtaniowy ...................... .
9. tętnica płucna ...................... .
10. żyła nerkowa ...................... .
11. żyła śledzionowa ...................... .
12. ciśnienie żylne ...................... .
2 Translate the sentences into English.
1. Kręgosłup jest zbudowany z 33 kręgów.
2. Kręgi krzyżowe, które się zrosły, tworzą kość krzyżową.
3. Każde żebro ma część kostną, która łączy się stawowo (articulate) z kręgami piersiowymi, i część chrzęstną, która połączona jest z mostkiem.
4. Naczynia chłonne powierzchowne umiejscowione są w skórze i tkance podskórnej.
5. Układ oddechowy składa się z jamy nosowej, gardła, krtani, tchawicy, oskrzeli i płuc.
6. Do układu trawiennego zalicza się przewód pokarmowy (jamę ustną, gardło, przełyk, żołądek, jelito cienkie i jelito grube) oraz gruczoły (wątrobę, trzustkę i ślinianki) i otrzewną.
7. Narząd moczowo-płciowy składa się z układu moczowego (nerki, moczowody, pęcherz moczowy i cewka moczowa) oraz układu płciowego męskiego i żeńskiego, z których każdy zbudowany jest z narządów płciowych wewnętrznych i zewnętrznych.
8. Gruczoły dokrewne regulują wiele czynności organizmu.
Presentation
1 Make short presentations on the following topics, referring to a relevant diagram whenever possible. Start with:
Good morning. / Good afternoon. I'm going to talk to you today about.... / I'll talk about.... / I'm here today to talk about.... . As you can see.... / The Latin term for this organ is.... but it is commonly known as.... .
1. The organs contained in the thoracic cavity.
2. The contents of the abdominopelvic cavity.
3. The organ systems of the human body.
4. The skeletal system.
5. Teaching of gross anatomy at the Medical University of ............. .
Self-assessment
Now, can you do it?
YES
NO
NEED MORE PRACTICE
1.
Name parts of the body
☐
☐
☐
2.
Name contents of body cavities
☐
☐
☐
3.
Name organ systems and their components
☐
☐
☐
4.
Name body regions
☐
☐
☐
5.
Give plural forms of Greek and Latin terminology
☐
☐
☐
6.
Give Polish equivalents of all anatomical terms presented in the unit
☐
☐
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7.
Tell how you are taught/learn gross anatomy
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Unit 2.Anatomical Description
IN THIS UNIT
- Anatomical position
- Shape and size
- Planes and sections of the body
Starting Out
Work in pairs.
Draw three objects and describe the relative position of one object (square A) to the other objects (triangle B and circle C) to another pair of students without showing them the drawing. Check if they have been able to reconstruct it.
You may find these expressions useful:
(just) below / (just) above, to the right of / to the left of, (immediately) behind / (immediately) in front of, close to / away from / at the level of.
Reading
Read the text, answer the questions that follow and label the diagram with the terms in italics (choose the singular or plural form as appropriate).
The Lungs
The lungs are a pair of large spongy organs lying in the thorax on either side of the heart and great vessels. They extend from the root of the neck to the diaphragm and are roughly conical, with the apex above and the base below. The lungs are surrounded by the ribs and the intercostal muscles. The thoracic vertebrae are situated behind the lungs. The mediastinum, which is between the lungs, completely separates one side of the thoracic cavity from the other as it extends from the vertebral column at the back to the sternum in front. The mediastinum contains the heart and great vessels, the trachea and the oesophagus, the thoracic duct and the thymus gland.
The lungs are divided into lobes. The left lung has two lobes, the upper (superior) lobe and the lower (inferior) lobe, separated by the oblique fissure. The right lung has three lobes, upper, middle and lower. The upper and middle lobes are separated by a horizontal fissure and the lower lobe is separated by an oblique fissure. Each lobe is further divided into bronchopulmonary segments, separated from each other by septa of connective tissue and each having an artery and a vein. Each segment is divided into smaller units (lobules).
The bronchi and their branching structures are known as the bronchial tree. The two main bronchi begin at the bifurcation of the trachea and one leads into each lung. The left main bronchus is narrower, longer and more horizontal than the right bronchus. The bronchi divide into branches, one for each lobe. Each of these divides into smaller branches, one for each bronchopulmonary segment, and branches again into smaller bronchi within the lung. The finest bronchi are called bronchioles or bronchioli. The terminal bronchioles branch repeatedly to form minute passages called alveolar ducts, from which alveolar sacs and alveoli open. The alveoli are surrounded by a network of capillaries.
The pleura is a serous membrane, which surrounds each lung and has two layers, so there are two pleurae. The visceral pleura covers the surfaces of the lungs. At the root of the lungs it is reflected back and becomes parietal pleura, which lines the chest wall and covers the superior surface of the diaphragm. The two layers of the pleura are normally in close contact with each other, separated by a film of serous secretion that enables them to glide over one another without friction, which facilitates the movement of the lungs in the chest. The potential space between the layers is called the pleural cavity.
1. What is the position of the lungs in relation to the heart?
2. What adjective is used to describe the appearance and texture of the lungs?
3. What is the shape of the lungs? What word is used to indicate that they are not exactly like this object in shape?
4. Where are the intercostal muscles situated in relation to the lungs?
5. Where is the mediastinum located?
6. What are the contents of the mediastinum?
7. How many fissures are there in the lungs?
8. What are the divisions and subdivisions of the lungs?
9. How does the right bronchus differ in shape from the left bronchus?
10. What are the divisions and subdivisions of the bronchi?
11. What are brionchioles?
12. What are alveolar ducts?
13. Which layer of the pleura covers the lungs and which lines the chest wall?
14. What is the role of the pleural cavity?
VOCABULARY
POSITION
In anatomical position, the body is erect and facing forwards with arms at the sides. The palms and toes are directed forwards. The following adjectives are commonly used in anatomical description.
- Superior: a part is above another part, or closer to the head
- Inferior: a part is below another part, or closer to the feet
- Anterior: a part is towards the front (surface)
- Posterior: a part is towards the back
- Ventral: front or towards the front of the body
- Dorsal: back or towards the back of the body
- Proximal: a part is closer to a point of attachment, or closer to the trunk of the body than another part
- Distal: a part is farther away from a point of attachment than another part
- Medial: a part is towards, or nearer, the midline of the body
- Lateral: a part is towards, or nearer, the side, away from the midline of the body
- Superficial: a part located on or near the surface
- Deep: a part is away from the surface
- External: outer
- Internal: inner
- Visceral: refers to internal organs or the covering of the organs
- Parietal: refers to the wall of a body cavity
- Prone: lying on the stomach, face down
- Supine: lying on the back, face up
1 Complete the sentences using appropriate adjectives from the list above.
1. The epidermis is the ........ (or outermost) layer of the skin.
2. The fingers are ........ to the wrist.
3. The elbow is ........ to the wrist.
4. The mouth is ...... to the nose.
5. The heart is ...... to the sternum.
6. The ...... cavity is subdivided into the thorax and the abdomen.
7. Muscles are ...... to the skin.
8. The heart is ...... to the vertebral column.
9. The nose is ...... to the ears.
10. The ...... portion is subdivided into the cranial portion, containing the brain and the spinal portion containing the spinal cord.
11. The nose is ...... to the mouth.
12. The ...... pleura covers the lungs.
13. The ...... pleura lines the chest wall.
14. The ...... nose is the visible part of the nose.
15. The ears are ...... to the eyes.
16. The ovaries are female ...... genital organs.
2 Use these adjectives and the verbs to be or to be situated or to be located or to be positioned or to lie to describe the relative positions of the following body parts.
Example: The heart lies superior to the diaphragm.
1. Superior/inferior
heart and diaphragm
2. Anterior/posterior
heart and sternum
3. Medial/lateral
heart and lungs
4. Proximal/distal
knee and ankle
5. Superficial/deep
skin and subcutaneous tissue
3 Explain the meaning of these adjectives.
- anteroinferior = located in front and below
- anterolateral = ............ and on the side
- anteromedial = ............ and towards the ............
- anteroposterior = directed towards both front and ............
- anterosuperior = located in ............ and ............
- posteroinferior = located at or towards the ............ and ............
- posterolateral = located on the side and ............
- posteromedial = ............ in back and towards the ............
4 Complete the sentences describing the position of the stomach in relation to some other abdominal organs
1. The .................... surface of the stomach is related to the liver and the anterior abdominal wall.
2. The stomach is related .................... to the liver and the anterior abdominal wall.
3. The .................... surface of the stomach is related to the pancreas and the spleen.
4. The stomach is related .................... to the pancreas and the spleen.
Note:
- Adjectives (anterior, posterior, etc.) are used to describe a fixed location of an anatomical structure.
The heart lies posterior to the sternum.
- Adverbs (anteriorly, posteriorly, etc.) are used when an action or direction is described.
The abdominal aorta is crossed anteriorly by the left renal vein.
5 Fill in each blank with either an adjective or an adverb from the box.
anterior / anteriorly - inferior / inferiorly - distal / distally - posterior / posteriorly - superior / superiorly - proximal / proximally - lateral / laterally - horizontal / horizontally - oblique / obliquely - medial / medially - transverse / transversely
a. The abdominal aorta is crossed (1) anteriorly by the left renal vein, the pancreas and the root of the mesentery.
b. The abdominal aorta lies (2) ......................... to the vertebral column.
c. The intercostal arteries communicate (3) ......................... with the internal mammary arteries.
d. The internal carotid arteries supply the (4) ......................... part of the brain.
e. Each subclavian artery passes (5) ......................... over the first rib.
f. The deep femoral artery is at first (6) ......................... and then (7) ......................... to the femoral artery.
g. The cephalic vein arises on the (8) ......................... side of the hand and ascends on the (9) ......................... side of the forearm.
h. The basilic vein runs from the (10) ......................... side of the hand up the (11) ......................... side of the forearm and arm.
i. Each greater wing of the sphenoid bone extends (12) ......................... .
j. All ribs articulate (13) ......................... with the vertebral column and arch (14) ......................... round the thorax.
k. The lower end of the humerus is expanded (15) ......................... .
l. The supracondylar ridges of the humerus extend (16) ......................... .
m. The medial part of the lower end of the humerus extends more (17) ......................... than the lateral.
n. The carpus consists of eight bones arranged in two rows, (18) ......................... and (19) ......................... .
o. The clavicle runs (20) ......................... at the root of the neck.
p. In the right lung, the (21) ......................... fissure separates the upper from the middle lobe and the (22) ......................... fissure separates the upper and middle lobes from the lower.
q. (23) ......................... the roof of the pharynx is continuous with the oesophagus.
r. The inferior vena cava returns deoxygenated blood to the heart from parts of the body (24) ......................... to the diaphragm.
s. The pelvic portion of the ureter turns (25) ......................... and reaches the bladder.
t. In the female the (26) ......................... surface of the urinary bladder is related to the body of the uterus.
6 Describe the position of these body parts linking the left and right columns with the appropriate expression: at the top (of), at the bottom (of), at the front (of), at the sides (of), on either (each) side (of), at the back (of), at the level (of).
The thyroid gland is situated
at the front and sides of
the neck.
The kidneys are situated
the vertebral column.
The kidneys lie
the twelfth thoracic to the third lumbar vertebrae.
The atlas is found
the vertebral column.
The coccyx is positioned
the vertebral column.
The thoracic cavity is bounded
the vertebral column and intercostal muscles.
7 Describe the position of these body organs using the verbs to lie or to be found or to be located or to be positioned and matching the organ on the left with the corresponding location on the right.
1. The lungs...
a. ...in the central and lower parts of the abdominal cavity.
2. The stomach...
b. ...between the posterior borders of the lobes of the thyroid gland and its capsule.
3. The small intestine...
c. ...between the end of the oesophagus and the beginning of the small intestine.
4. The thyroid gland...
d. ...in the posterior part of the abdomen, behind the peritoneum.
5. The parathyroid glands...
e. ...in the thorax on either side of the heart and great vessels.
6. The kidneys...
f. ...at the front and sides of the neck.
7. Each adrenal gland...
g. ...at the base of the brain.
8. The brain...
h. ...just below the neck under the top of the sternum.
9. The pituitary gland...
i. ...in the pelvis, one on either side of the uterus.
10. The ovaries...
j. ...in the upper, left side of the abdomen, next to the stomach and pancreas.
11. The spleen...
k. ...on top of one of the two kidneys.
12. The thymus ...
l. ...within the skull.
13. The uterus ...
m. ...at the base of the tongue.
14. The prostate gland...
n. ...the upper left side of the abdomen.
15. The lingual tonsils...
o. ...just below the bladder and in front of the rectum.
16. The pancreas...
p. ...under the liver, between the stomach and the small intestine.
17. The stomach...
q. ...on the posteroinferior surface of the liver.
18. The gallbladder...
r. ...on top of the bladder, in front of the rectum.
8 Describe the position of the aorta using appropriate verbs from the box.
arch - arise - end - enter - pass (×2)
The aorta arises from the upper part of the left ventricle, ....... upwards and to the right and then ....... backwards to the left and ....... down through the thorax on the left side of the spine. It ....... the abdominal cavity through an opening in the diaphragm called the aortic hiatus. It ....... at the lower border of the fourth lumbar vertebra by dividing into the right and left common iliac arteries.
In the completed text above identify the position of the following: the ascending aorta, the arch of the aorta, the descending thoracic aorta and the abdominal aorta.
9 Describe the position of the oesophagus using appropriate verbs from the box.
begin - descend - end - extend - pass - pierce
The oesophagus extends from the pharynx to the stomach. It ......................... at the level of the sixth cervical vertebrae and ......................... through the mediastinum in front of the vertebral column and behind the trachea. It ......................... through (.........................) the diaphragm at the level of the tenth thoracic vertebra and ......................... at the cardiac orifice of the stomach at the level of the eleventh thoracic vertebra.
STRUCTURE
10 Complete the sentences by choosing appropriate verbs (and prepositions) from the box.
attach / be attached (to) - bound / be bounded (by) - compose / be composed (of) - connect - consist (of) - contain - cover / be covered (with) - (sub)divide / be (sub)divided (into) - fill / be filled (with) - form / be formed (by/of) - join / be joined (by/to) - line / be lined (with) - make up / be made up (of) - separate / be separated (by) - support / be supported (by) - surround / be surrounded (by)
1. The face .......... 14 bones.
2. The vertebral column .......... a number of irregular bones called the vertebrae.
3. Fibrocartilage .......... more collagen fibres than hyaline cartilage.
4. Skeletal muscle .......... the flesh of the limbs and trunk.
5. The cavities and hollow organs of the body .......... membranes.
6. The anterior part of the sclera .......... conjunctiva.
7. The thyroid gland .......... a number of closed follicles.
8. The nasal cavity .......... a septum.
9. The external nose .......... the two nasal bones and by cartilage.
10. Some of the bones which .......... the nasal cavity are hollow.
11. The wall of the trachea .......... involuntary muscle and fibrous tissue strengthened by hyaline cartilage.
12. The mouth is a cavity .......... externally by the lips and cheeks.
13. The tongue .......... the hyoid bone and the mandible.
14. The diaphragm .......... the thorax .......... the abdomen.
15. The brain .......... the cranial cavity.
SHAPE AND SIZE
11 Match the names of the body organs or their parts with descriptions of their shape and size.
Body organ
1. The thymus gland
2. The bladder
3. The stomach
4. The eye
5. Lymphatic nodes
6. The hilum
7. The lungs
8. The heart
9. The ovaries
10. The duodenum
11. The gall bladder
12. The kidneys
13. The pancreas
14. The pineal body
Shape and size
a. a hollow, cone-shaped organ, the size of a fist
b. small bodies varying in size from a pin-head to an almond
c. two roughly cone shaped organs
d. a triangular-shaped depression on the concave medial surface of the lung
e. an approximately J-shaped organ
f. a roughly C-shaped tube
g. a pear-shaped organ
h. a small reddish body about the size of a cherry stone
i. two bean-shaped organs
j. its size and shape vary with the amount of fluid it contains
k. it is spherical in shape
l. two small glands about the size and shape of almonds
m. it varies in size with age
n. a fish-shaped gland
12 Make your own descriptions of the shape and size of body organs using the following patterns.
1. Noun [body organ] + be + shaped like + noun.
.................
2. Noun [body organ] + be + noun-shaped organ.
.................
3. Noun [body organ] + be + adjective organ.
.................
4. Noun [body organ] + looks like / resembles + noun.
.................
5. Noun [body organ] + looks like / resembles + description].
The sphenoid bone looks like a bat in flight.
6. Noun [body organ] + be + roughly/approximately adjective in shape.
.................
7. Noun [body organ] + be + the size of + a noun.
.................
8. Noun [body organ] + be + [2 cm] long/wide/thick.
.................
9. Noun [body organ] + be/measures + [2 cm] in length/width/thickness/diameter.
.................
10. Noun [body organ] + measures [2 cm x [by] 2 cm x [by] 2 cm].
.................
11. Noun [body organ] + weighs [150 g].
.................
WORD FORMATION
Study the following prefixes of Latin origin and then complete the definitions.
Prefix
Direction
circum-
around
dextr/o-
right
en-, endo-
inside, within
epi-
above, over, upon
extra-
outside
infra-
below, beneath
inter-
between
intra-
within
juxta-
near
para-
alongside, near, beyond, abnormal
per-
through, throughout
peri-
around, surrounding
post-
after, behind
retro-
behind, backward
sub-
under, beneath
supra-
above, beyond
trans-
across
1. C... ... ...oral means around or near the mouth.
2. Location of the heart in the right hemithorax is known as d... ... ... ...cardia.
3. E... ... ... ...peritoneal means situated outside the peritoneal cavity.
4. I... ... ...diaphragmatic means inferior to the diaphragm.
5. I... ... ... ...costal means situated between the ribs.
6. I... ... ... ...gastric means situated or occurring within the stomach.
7. J... ... ... ...articular means situated near a joint or in the region of a joint.
8. P... ... ... ...vertebral means beside the vertebral column.
9. P... ... ... ...cutaneous means performed through the skin, as injection.
10. P... ... ... ...lobar mans surrounding a lobe.
11. P... ... ... ...renal means located behind the kidney.
12. R... ... ... ...pharynx is the posterior part of the pharynx.
13. S... ... ... ...pulmonary means situated or occurring below the lung.
14. S... ... ... ...thoracic means situated superior to the thorax.
15. T... ...thoracic means performed through the wall of the thorax or through the thoracic cavity.
MORE READING
1 Read the text and identify anatomical planes in the diagram
In human and animal anatomy, three principal hypothetical planes are used separating the body into sections to describe the position of anatomical structures or the direction of movements. The frontal (coronal) plane divides the body into anterior and posterior (ventral and dorsal) portions. The sagittal plane divides the body into right and left portions. If the cut passes through the midline of the body, it is called a median or midsagittal plane. If the cut is parallel to the sagittal plane, it is called a parasagittal plane. The transverse (horizontal) plane divides the body horizontally into superior and inferior (cranial and caudal portions). A cross-section is a transverse cut through a structure or tissue. A longitudinal section is a cut along the long axis of a structure. An oblique section is a diagonal section through a structure in any plane that is neither longitudinal nor transverse.
2 Read the text and answer the questions.
The Heart
The heart is located in the middle mediastinal region of the thoracic cavity between the two lungs. It is posterior to the sternum and anterior to the vertebral column, and it rests on the diaphragm. About two-thirds of the heart mass is to the left of the midline and one-third is on the right. The apex, or pointed end of the heart, is directed inferiorly, anteriorly and to the left. It extends downwards to the level of the fifth intercostal space. The opposite end, the base, is larger and less pointed than the apex and has several large vessels attached to it. The base is directed superiorly, posteriorly, and to the right. Its most superior portion is at the level of the second rib. The size of the heart varies with the size of the individual. On average, it is about 9 cm wide and 12 cm long, about the size of a closed fist. The heart and the proximal portions of the vessels attached to its base are enclosed by a loose-fitting, double layered sac called the pericardium, or pericardial sac. The outer layer of the pericardium is called the fibrous pericardium. It is attached to the diaphragm, the posterior portion of the sternum, the vertebrae, and the large vessels at the base of the heart. The fibrous pericardium is lined with a layer of serous membrane called the parietal pericardium. Where the pericardium is attached to the vessels at the base of the heart, the parietal pericardium reflects onto the surface of the heart to form the visceral pericardium, or epicardium. The small potential space between the parietal and visceral layers of the pericardium is the pericardial cavity. The heart wall is formed by three layers of tissue. The outer layer of the heart wall is the epicardium, the middle layer is the myocardium, which forms the bulk of the heart wall, and the inner layer is the endocardium. The internal cavity of the heart is divided into four chambers: the right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium and the left ventricle. The two atria are thin-walled upper chambers that receive blood from the veins. The two ventricles are thick-walled lower chambers that forcefully pump blood out of the heart. The heart is divided from base to apex by a muscular partition called the septum. The two sides of the heart have no communication with each other. Each atrium communicates with the ventricle below it on the same side of the heart through an opening guarded by the atrioventricular valve, (the bicuspid or mitral valve on the left and the tricuspid valve on the right).
1. Is the heart located in the anterior mediastinum, between the second and fifth ribs?
2. Is it positioned to the right or to the left of the midline?
3. Is the direction of the apex and the base of the heart the same?
4. What size is the heart?
5. What is the pericardium?
6. What lines the fibrous pericardium?
7. What is the epicardium?
8. What is the heart wall composed of?
9. What does the endocardium line?
10. What divides the heart longitudinally?
11. Which chambers of the heart communicate with each other and which do not?
12. Where is the atrioventricular valve situated?
TRANSLATION
Translate the passage into English.
Serce ma kształt zbliżony do stożka. Położone jest w klatce piersiowej, w śródpiersiu. Większa część serca leży po lewej stronie. Serce otoczone jest błoną surowiczą -osierdziem. Osierdzie składa się z dwóch blaszek: trzewnej, przylegającej ściśle do mięśnia sercowego, i ściennej, stanowiącej blaszkę zewnętrzną. Ściana serca zbudowana jest z trzech warstw. Podstawa serca skierowana jest ku górze, tyłowi i stronie prawej, a wierzchołek skierowany jest ku dołowi, do przodu i w stronę lewą. Wnętrze serca wysłane jest błoną - wsierdziem. Jama serca podzielona jest przegrodami na cztery części. Przegroda przedsionkowo-komorowa oddziela przedsionki od komór, przegroda międzyprzedsionkowa oddziela przedsionek prawy od lewego, a przegroda międzykomorowa oddziela komorę prawą od lewej.
Zastawka przedsionkowo-komorowa lewa zwana dwudzielną chroni ujście przedsionkowo-komorowe lewe. Składa się z dwóch płatków (flaps/cusps/leaflets) - przedniego i tylnego. Zastawka przedsionkowo-komorowa prawa (zastawka trójdzielna) składa się z trzech płatków - przedniego, tylnego i przegrodowego.
PRESENTATIONS
1 Give a description of a body organ. In your description you should answer the following questions:
1. What is it like in shape?
2. What size is it? / How big is it?
3. Where in the body does it lie?
4. Where is it situated in relation to other organs?
5. What is it made up of?
6. What parts is it divided into?
Do not name the organ but let your audience guess what it is.
2 Give a description of a body organ as you are drawing it at the same time (do not worry about the quality of your drawing). Use the same pattern of the presentation as above.
3 Work in pairs.
Student A identifies a body organ by asking Student B open questions about it. Where does it lie?
What shape is it? and so on.
4 Work in pairs.
Student A identifies a body organ by asking Student B YES/NO questions about it
Does it lie in the thorax?
Is it roughly cone-shaped? and so on.
5 Work in pairs.
Student A prepares a set of five "examination" questions about the anatomy of a body organ of his/her choice. Student B answers the questions. Then the examiner and the examinee change roles.
6 Give a short presentation of a body organ, referring to a relevant diagram if possible.
Start with presenting the topic Today I'm going to present... and then give the outline of your presentation.
I'm going to look at four main areas.
First, I'll talk about the position of the...
Then I will present the structure...
And finally I will deal with its shape and size.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Now, can you do it?
YES
NO
NEED MORE PRACTICE
1.
List adjectives of Latin origin describing anatomical position
☐
☐
☐
2.
Describe the position of organs in the body
☐
☐
☐
3.
Describe the position of one organ in relation to another
☐
☐
☐
4.
Describe the structure of a body organ
☐
☐
☐
5.
Describe the shape of a body organ
☐
☐
☐
6.
Describe the size of a body organ
☐
☐
☐
7.
Search for and read a medical publication in English available online or in print and summarize it in Polish: an anatomical description of a body organ/structure.
☐
☐
☐
Wstęp
English for Medicine to podręcznik do nauki specjalistycznego języka angielskiego przeznaczony dla studentów medycyny, również studentów z innych krajów podejmujących w Polsce studia w języku angielskim, oraz lekarzy posługujących się językiem angielskim na poziomie biegłości B1/B2 według Europejskiego Systemu Opisu Kształcenia Językowego. Podręcznik English for Medicine ma pomóc w osiągnięciu wyższego poziomu biegłości językowej, pozwalającego na sprawne funkcjonowanie w środowisku akademickim i zawodowym, porozumiewanie się z pacjentami oraz korzystanie z publikacji specjalistycznych.
Pierwsze wydanie English for Medicine zostało poprawione i rozszerzone. W drugim wydaniu zmieniono redakcję wielu ćwiczeń, wprowadzono uzupełniające komentarze (NOTE) rozszerzające ich zakres oraz dodatkowe ćwiczenia prezentujące nowe słownictwo, zarówno specjalistyczne, jak i potoczne, jakim posługują się pacjenci mówiąc o swoich dolegliwościach. Podręcznik uzupełniono o UNIT 15 CLINICAL STUDIES - opis języka badań klinicznych oraz APPENDIX 4 WALK-IN CLINIC: SPEEDY ASSESSMENT & CONSULTATIONS - zestawy pytań pozwalających na szybkie uzyskanie informacji o stanie zdrowia i dolegliwościach pacjenta w przychodni pierwszego kontaktu oraz poleceń skierowanych do pacjenta podczas badania lekarskiego. Zmieniono też format nagrań. Mamy nadzieję, że dzięki temu łatwiej będzie korzystać z podręcznika studentom i lektorom.
Zasadniczą część podręcznika English for Medicine tworzy 15 rozdziałów (UNITS 1 - 15) prezentujących takie tematy jak: opis anatomiczny, funkcje i procesy fizjologiczne, organizacja szpitala, objawy przedmiotowe i podmiotowe, choroby i zaburzenia, urazy, zbieranie wywiadu i przeprowadzanie badania, testy diagnostyczne, leczenie farmakologiczne i zabiegi chirurgiczne oraz badania kliniczne.
Każdy UNIT składa się z tekstu do czytania (READING), któremu towarzyszy nagranie prezentujące prawidłową wymowę, co jest szczególnie ważne w przypadku terminologii pochodzenia łacińskiego. Zalecana jest samodzielna lektura i wielokrotne odsłuchanie nagrania. Ćwiczenia leksykalne (VOCABULARY) prezentują słownictwo z wybranych grup tematycznych z rozróżnieniem języka lekarza i języka pacjenta. To nie tylko "podwójna" terminologia - dyspnoea i breathlessness - lecz także kształcenie rozumienia opisu dolegliwości przez pacjentów oraz umiejętności wyjaśniania im rozpoznania i postępowania terapeutycznego. COMMENT ON USAGE pokazuje, jak w danej grupie tematycznej prawidłowo wykorzystać kolokacje, czyli poprawnie łączyć dwa lub więcej wyrazy w logiczną i zrozumiałą całość, zwraca uwagę na odcienie znaczeniowe i znaczenie w różnych kontekstach i sytuacjach. Ćwiczenia WORD FORMATION przedstawiają zasady budowy terminów medycznych, co powinno ułatwić korzystanie z literatury fachowej. Skróty tak często wykorzystywane w autentycznych dokumentach i tekstach specjalistycznych są zgrupowane w glosariuszach (GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS), a odczytywanie ich znaczenia i podawanie polskich odpowiedników stanowi dodatkowe ćwiczenie językowe rozszerzające zasób słownictwa i je utrwalające. Podręcznik English for Medicine zawiera też liczne ćwiczenia kształcące umiejętność komunikacji z pacjentami - zbieranie wywiadu, polecenia w czasie badania, wyjaśnianie rozpoznania i leczenia oraz wypełniania podstawowej dokumentacji. UNIT 14 pokazuje, jak konstruować i przedstawiać opis przypadku.
Każdy UNIT zawiera ćwiczenie tłumaczeniowe stanowiące jego podsumowanie. Teksty zostały tak dobrane, aby w ich przekładzie na język angielski wykorzystać występujące wcześniej zwroty; należy przy tym mieć na uwadze, że najczęściej - a w przypadku dłuższych fragmentów praktycznie nigdy - nie jest możliwe tłumaczenie dosłowne - "słowo w słowo".
Innymi stałymi elementami są tematy prezentacji indywidualnych (PRESENTATIONS) i przygotowanych przez grupę studentów (TEAMWORK). Każdy UNIT kończy się miniankietą samooceny (SELF-ASSESSMENT) - czego się nauczyliśmy i jak potrafimy wykorzystać to w praktyce. Warto zwrócić uwagę na ostatni punkt tej krótkiej ankiety i sprawdzenie, czy radzisz sobie z autentycznym powiązanym tematycznie tekstem w języku angielskim i potrafisz go streścić w języku ojczystym.
Poza częścią zasadniczą podręcznik zawiera materiały dodatkowe (APPENDIX 1-4) oraz rozwiązania ćwiczeń (ANSWER KEY), wykaz czasowników nieregularnych oraz słowniczek (WORD LIST) z zapisem wymowy, znacznie w drugim wydaniu rozszerzony. APPENDIX 1 to wykaz często stosowanych w języku medycznym symboli, skrótów i skrótowców, APPENDIX 2 prezentuje zasady budowy terminów medycznych pochodzenia łacińskiego i greckiego wraz z przykładami, APPENDIX 3 omawia język i format prezentacji oraz plakatu naukowego, a APPENDIX 4 zawiera przykłady podstawowych pytań dotyczących stanu zdrowia/dolegliwości pacjenta i poleceń podczas badania lekarskiego.
Podręcznik English for Medicine jest zasadniczo przeznaczony do wykorzystania w nauce języka pod kierunkiem lektora. Może być jednak również używany w samodzielnej pracy, w czym powinny pomóc nagrania, szczegółowy klucz do ćwiczeń i słownik.
Pragniemy podziękować PZWL Wydawnictwo Lekarskiemu i redaktor Jolancie Jedlińskiej za inicjatywę wznowienia podręcznika English for Medicine oraz pomoc w przygotowaniu drugiego wydania.
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